I f V t ; " r\( '1: vy,;' < ■< -< Field Museum OF Natural History rvn^ T.A^a Publications OF FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES Volume 29 illMSl CHICAGO, U.S.A. 1939 Ploms are left blank, lowlands are shaded ■ 1_ PHYSICAL FEATURES OF IRAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF IRAN HENRY FIELD CURATOR OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SERIES FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME 29, NUMBER 1 DECEMBER 15, 1939 PUBLICATION 458 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS CONTENTS PAGB List of Illustrations 5 Preface 7 I. Introduction 13 II. The Land and the People 16 III. Historical References to Peoples of Iran (445 b.c.-a.d. 1938) . . 36 IV. The Peoples of Iran 159 Northern and Northwestern Provinces 159 Mazanderan 167 Gilan 168 Khamseh 169 Kazvin 170 Azerbaijan 172 Kashan 172 Luristan 173 Khuzistan (Arabistan) 184 Bakhtiari Garmsir 200 Isfahan 204 Fars and the Gulf Ports 205 Laristan and Bandar 'Abbas 225 Kerman 229 Baluchistan 236 Seistan 244 Yezd 247 Khurasan 248 Samnan-Damghan 254 New Internal Divisions of Iran 254 V. The Physical Anthropology of Iran 257 Skeletal Material from Iran 257 Anthropometric Methods and Technique 278 List of Anthropometric Abbreviations 289 Jews of Isfahan 290 Comparative Data on Jews from Southwestern Asia and the Caucasus 316 Yezd-i-Khast Villagers 330 Kinareh Villagers 349 Lurs from Pusht-i-Kuh 367 Rayy Workmen and Miscellaneous Individuals 384 Comparison of Four Groups in Iran 392 Racial Analysis of the Population of Iran 410 External Relations with Iran, Including a Survey of Anthropometric Data from Southwestern Asia 436 Racial Position of the Modern Inhabitants of Iran 489 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TEXT FIGURES PAGE 1. Distribution of rainfall 18 2. Distribution of forests, grasslands, and deserts 22 3. Communications within Iran 31 4. Distribution of population (after Enciclopedia Italiana' 34 5. Ethnographic map of Persia (after Houssay) 65 6. Physical characters of Lur, Bakhtiari, and Susian (after Houssay) . . 70 7. Armenian type of cradle (after Bishop) 73 8. Provinces of Iran 161 9. Tribes of southwestern Iran 201 10. Tribes of south central Iran 215 11. Index map showing scattered tribes in Iran 231 12. Tribes of southeastern Iran 239 13. Tribes of the northeast border of Iran 251 14. Head length, breadth, and capacity of eighty-six Isfahan Jews .... 300 15. Head length, breadth, and capacity of forty-six Yezd-i-Khast villagers . 339 16. Plan of Yezd-i-Khast caravanserai 344 17. Head length, breadth, and capacity of seventy-three Kinareh villagers . 357 18. Head length, breadth, and capacity of fifty-two Lurs 374 19. Geographical position of Iran 490 20. Ethnological position of the peoples of Southwestern Asia (after Ratzel) 499 MAP Physical features of Iran Frontispiece SUPPLEMENTS Map a. Distribution of tribes in Iraq Map B. Distribution of tribes in western Iran PREFACE On April 1, 1934, the Field Museum Anthropological Expedition to the Near East, under my leadership, began work in Baghdad. The Expedition was financed by Mr. Marshall Field. The main objec- tive was to continue the anthropometric survey of Southwestern Asia which I had begun in 1928 as a member of the Field Museum- Oxford University Joint Expedition to Kish, Iraq. An account of these studies on 398 Kish Arabs, 231 Iraq Soldiers, and 38 Ba'ij Beduins was published in 1935 under the title "Arabs of Central Iraq, Their History, Ethnology, and Physical Characters" (Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Anthr. Mem., vol. IV). The first four and a half months of the survey were spent in Iraq, where, in addition to our anthropological work, we collected botanical, geological, and zoological specimens. Similar researches were conducted in Iran during the following six weeks. Mr. Richard A. Martin, now Curator of Near Eastern Archaeology at Field Museum, was in charge of collecting zoological specimens and also accompanied me throughout the Expedition in the capacity of photographer. The excellence of the photographs illustrating this publication is entirely due to his skill and patience, not only in deal- ing with recalcitrant subjects but also in the development of negatives under adverse conditions. Dr. Walter P. Kennedy, of the Royal College of Medicine in Baghdad, took blood samples among the series of Isfahan Jews and assisted in the collection of materia medica in Tehran and Isfahan. Yusuf Lazar, an Assyrian, was in charge of collecting herbarium specimens and insects. Technical questions regarding the anthropometric measurements and observations and other data were discussed at Harvard with Dr. E. A. Hooton, and in England with Sir Arthur Keith and Dr. L. H, Dudley Buxton. The recording of special information, par- ticularly in relation to primitive medicine, was requested by my former chief, the late Dr. Berthold Laufer. Prior to our leaving the United States, Mr. Wallace Murray, Chief of the Division of Near Eastern Affairs in the Department of State, had very kindly notified Hon. William H. Hornibrook, United States Minister in Tehran, of our proposed scientific mission. At Mr. Hornibrook's intervention I was granted private audiences with the President of the Council, the Minister of the Interior, and the Chief of the Iran Police. As a result of these interviews a special permit (javaz) was issued enabling the members of the Expedition 8 Preface to travel to and from Shiraz, to conduct anthropometric studies wherever convenient, to collect zoological and botanical specimens, and to take photographs. Through the kindness of Dr. and the late Mrs. Erich F. Schmidt we were their guests at Rayy for a period of three weeks, during which time the special permits were being authorized. With the assistance of Dr. George Miles, a member of the Rayy Expedition, and Dr. Walter P. Kennedy, I took the opportunity to carry out one of Dr. Laufer's missions, the collection of medical prescriptions and specimens of useful plants and drugs with their native names. At Isfahan, Mirza Muhammad Ali Khan (Plate 14, Fig. 2), ninety-five- year-old doctor, generously consented to dictate his prescriptions for various ailments. Dr. Laufer planned to incorporate these notes in his proposed "Materia Medica Iranica" — a manuscript which unfortunately was not completed before his death in 1934 (cf. Laufer, 1919, pp. 188-189). My material, together with a catalogue of specimens and data from Iran and Iraq, appeared in 1937 in a report entitled "Useful Plants and Drugs of Iran and Iraq," prepared by Dr. David Hooper (pp. 73-241) of the Wellcome Historical Medi- cal Museum, London, in collaboration with the writer. At Isfahan we were the guests of Mr. and Mrs. Myron B. Smith. Our thanks to the Governor and to the Chief of Police must be recorded, for without their friendly co-operation it would have been impossible for us to measure and study a series of Jews in the Ghetto. We must also acknowledge the personal assistance of Mr. Joseph Cohen, Director of the Alliance Israelite, who made the necessary arrangements for our study of the Jews and placed at our disposal the school buildings in the Ghetto. Mr, Myron Smith then drove Mr. Martin, Yusuf Lazar, and myself from Isfahan to Persepolis. We stayed five days at Yezd-i- Khast, where we measured a number of men and collected zoological and botanical specimens. Mrs. Smith acted as recorder. At Persepolis we were the guests of Dr. Ernst Herzfeld, leader of the Oriental Institute Expedition of the University of Chicago. Through the kindness of Dr. Herzfeld we were directed and escorted by Mr. Donald McCown and the late Mr. K. Bergner, members of the Persepolis Expedition, to the village of Kinareh, where a number of men were measured, observed, and photographed. In Shiraz, while guests of Mr. and Mrs. W. E. Browne of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, we visited the shores of Lake Maharlu in search of traces of Paleolithic and Neolithic habitation (cf. Appendix D). Preface 9 Upon our return to Tehran, Dr. A. Hekmat, Minister of Educa- tion, and Mr. A. Godard offered suggestions for a detailed anthro- pometric survey of Iran, a project which I hope will materialize in the not too distant future. Mr. G. H. Ebtehaj gave me permission to quote tribal information from his guidebook. Mr. Nasser Gholi Sardari, Chief of the Dactyloscopic and Anthropometric Services, Police Department in Tehran, very kindly acted as interpreter and facilitated the obtainment of permits. In conclusion I must record my deep gratitude to His Majesty Riza Shah Pahlavi and to his Ministers, who made possible these preliminary studies on the physical characters of the modern peoples of Iran. Through the Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Shimran, visas for Mr. Martin and myself were granted for entry at Baku, and on September 12 we left Iran by boat from Enzeli. Following our return to Chicago in December, 1934, we began preparations for the publication of the anthropometric data. During the wi'iting of this report I have had the benefit of dis- cussing the general arrangement of the material with Dr. Paul S. Martin, Chief Curator of Anthropology at Field Museum. Since 2,500 indi\'iduals had been studied in Iraq, Iran, and the Caucasus, it was decided to accept the invitation of Dr. Hooton and to have the statistics tabulated on the card system for sorting by the Hollerith machines at the Anthropometric Laboratory in the Peabody Museum at Harvard. During 1935 and part of 1936 the data were prepared for the machines and the introductory sections written. From September, 1936, to June, 1937, I worked on this material at the Peabody Museum. Mr. Donald Scott, Director, facilitated my work in every possible manner. Throughout this period I had the benefit of numerous con- ferences with Dr. Hooton, who supervised the preparation of this report and from time to time offered many valuable suggestions, particularly in regard to the methods to be employed in the presen- tation of these data. I am also grateful for opportunities to discuss numerous problems with Dr. Carleton S. Coon and with Dr. Carl C. Seltzer, who cal- culated the statistical tables. In February, 1938, I returned to Harvard to spend three weeks sorting and tabulating my anthropometric data under the direction of Dr. Hooton in an attempt to determine the basic elements in the 10 Preface population of Iran. Dr. Seltzer also contributed many helpful suggestions during the statistical analyses and interpretations of the machine sortings. Dr. Gordon T. Bowles, of the Peabody Museum, returned during 1937 from an anthropometric survey from eastern Afghanistan to the Shan States of Burma. He examined our Irani photographs and has made some comments on the occurrence of these types in Afghanistan and northwestern India (pp. 502-505). Mr. James H. Gaul of the Peabody Museum generously allowed me to quote (pp. 273-276) his measurements and observations on human skeletal material from Rayy, where he worked under Dr. Erich F. Schmidt. Dr. Frederick R. Wulsin gave permission to include measurements on eight skulls from Tureng Tepe. During the compilation of data on skeletal material from Iran I received generous assistance from Dr. E. A. Hooton, Peabody Museum, Harvard; Mr. Horace H. F. Jayne, University Museum, Philadelphia; Dr. Wilton M. Krogman, University of Chicago; Dr. T. J. Arne, Natural History Museum, Stockholm; Dr. G. V. Backman, Institute of Anatomy, Lund; Dr. H. V. Vallois, University of Toulouse; and Dr. Erich F. Schmidt, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. I wish to thank Miss Elizabeth Reniff, my former research assistant, who worked unceasingly for three years on this report both at Field Museum and at Harvard. Miss Ethel Brady, who typed the greater part of the manuscript, assisted with the final checking of the report. I wish to express gratitude to Dr. Edith W. Ware for editorial assistance during the period of one year. Miss Dorothy Pedersen assisted Dr. Ware in the final checking of the manuscript and, in particular, the general index and the bibliography. I also gratefully acknowledge the aid of Miss Lillian A. Ross, Staff Editor of the Division of Printing, in seeing the manuscript through the press. My wife has generously assisted in the arduous task of proof- reading part of the manuscript. Russian texts were translated and transliterations checked by Mr. V. Rimsky-Korsakoff at the Peabody Museum, Harvard, and by Mr. Eugene Prostov, of the Iowa State College Library, Ames. Preface 11 Miss Ethel C. Elkins facilitated reference work in the library of the American Institute of Iranian Art and Archaeology in New York and called my attention to the reports by Sir Arnold T. Wilson. At the New York Public Library Miss Ida M. Pratt very kindly gave me access to an unpublished bibliography on Iran prepared under her direction by Mr. Alvan C. Eastman. My former tutor, Dr. J. A. Douglas, recently appointed Professor of Geology at Oxford University and an authority on the geology of Iran, suggested some references which have been included in the text or in footnotes. While I was in London during July, 1937, Lord Cadman, Chair- man of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, through the good services of Colonel J. B. Dalzell Hunter, chief medical officer, put at my disposal certain climatological and medical data, parts of which have been referred to in the following pages. Included in this material was the report of Dr. M. Y. Young on former health conditions in western Iran. These medical notes have been quoted in Appendix E. Sir Arnold T. Wilson cordially gave me permission to quote extracts from his report on Luristan. Professor A. T. Olmstead, of the Oriental Institute of the Univer- sity of Chicago, and Professor V. Minorsky, of the School of Oriental Studies in London, suggested source material and historical references. In 1933 Mrs. Homer Thomas, formerly Miss Winifred Smeaton, compiled at Field Museum part of the comparative anthropometric data from Southwestern Asia quoted in Chapter V. Mr. Arthur W. Du Bois allowed me to include extracts from his notes on the Lurs. Six maps (Frontispiece and Figs. 1-3, 8, 19) were drawn for this publication by Dr. Erwin Raisz, cartographer of the Institute of Geographical Exploration at Harvard. The maps of the salt desert, south of Tehran (Fig. 22), and of Lake Maharlu (Fig. 23), the plan of the Yezd-i-Khast caravanserai (Fig. 16), and the large tribal sheet (A) of Iraq, compiled from all available sources, were drawn at Field Museum by Mr. Richard A. Martin. The large tribal sheet of western Iran (B), compiled from the maps (scale 1:1,000,000) pub- lished in Calcutta by the Surveyor General of India, from data contained in Chapter IV, and from authorities desirous of remain- ing anonymous, was drawn at Field Museum by Mr. Peter Gerhard, a volunteer assistant. I am most grateful to Mr. Gerhard, who also 12 Preface prepared for publication the five small tribal maps and the map showing the distribution of population, based on the "Enciclopedia Italiana," vol. 26, p. 811, Milan, 1935. Three maps and two text figures (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 20, and 21) were drawn by Staff Illustrator Carl F. Gronemann. Dr. Richard Ettinghausen of the Institute of Fine Arts, Univer- sity of Michigan, translated and prepared a brief commentary on an inscription in the Yezd-i-Khast caravanserai (Appendix F). The place names conform to the spelling adopted by the Per- manent Committee on Geographical Names of the Royal Geograph- ical Society in London. As the question of orthography is by no means settled and many names are not yet included in the published lists of the Society, standard practice as adopted by the most recent British map-makers has been used. In the index to tribal names occurring in Chapter III, Dr. A. H. K. Sassani, Iran Government Scholar at the University of Chicago, suggested some standardized forms of spelling for modern tribal names, but with the present lack of detailed knowledge and informa- tion further standardization is unwarranted. Orthographical dis- crepancies are thus inevitable. Since this manuscript was handed to the printer a few important new references have been inserted in the text and in the bibliography. Henry Field May 1, 1938 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY OF IRAN I. INTRODUCTION This report, based on the anthropometric data obtained during August and September, 1934, is concerned with the physical charac- ters of the modern inhabitants of Iran. In order to present the results of this preliminary anthropometric survey an attempt has been made to indicate the position of the modern Iranis in relation to the peoples of Southwestern Asia. Chapter II deals briefly with the general location of Iran, the phys- ical geography, geology, climate, flora, and fauna, including a concise historical section selected from "The Persians" by Sir Denison Ross. The waves of migration and the conquering hordes which have swept across the Iranian Plateau must have left traces in the modern population, but the racial composition of the earliest elements of the population at the dawn of the historical period is so complex and so uncertain that it seemed unwise to give more than this cursory historical outline. At some future date when a detailed anthropo- metric survey has been made within the boundaries of Iran and at the time when publications have appeared dealing with the skeletal remains excavated at numerous archaeological levels from several sites, it may be possible to combine these data to give a true descrip- tion of the elements composing the physical characters of the ancient and modern inhabitants of Iran. During the past two thousand years historians and travelers have recorded observations on the Persians, but no compilation of these reports is available. I have, therefore, made a careful selection from a number of sources, and in Chapter III this material is pre- sented in chronological sequence. To simplify the task for the reader there is also an index (pp. 601-651), where the various refer- ences may be found under the name of the tribe. I was fortunate to be granted access to full and unpublished data of the past fifteen years on modern tribal conditions in Iran. Although the authors of these reports preferred to remain anonymous, I secured permission to quote extracts from their observations. Chapter IV is a summary of this material, province by province. During the past five years the Shah has made many changes in regard to tribal distribution throughout the country. In general, nomadism has been discouraged, a policy which should facilitate the 13 14 Anthropology of Iran preparation of detailed tribal maps were it not for the fact that the Shah has transplanted many groups of the population. During 1938 the Shah made many radical changes in the internal divisions, whose final boundaries have not yet been determined. Mr. M. H. Ganji sent from Tehran in December, 1938, some notes on the new internal divisions of Iran together with a list of some recent alterations in the geographical names. (For previous changes see JRGS, vol. 80, p. 268, 1932.) Chapter V is a detailed description of the four series studied by the writer, together with racial implications suggested by my con- clusions. Comparative statistical data have been included so that the position of my 299 Iranis can be examined in relation to the adjacent and surrounding peoples. So as not to drift too far from the focus of study, the comparative data are limited to a few series from Iraq, Arabia, Trans-Jordan, Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, the Caucasus, Turkestan, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and India. General trends, however, can be studied, although giant lacunae must be apparent to the most casual observer. Reports of other activities, related but subordinate to the main objective of the expedition, have been included as Appendices A to H in No. 2 of this volume. The two large tribal maps of Iran (B) and Iraq (A), which will be distributed under separate cover, are the result of my compilation of these data during the past eleven years. The authorities from which the greater part of the information was obtained prefer to remain anonymous. Since there was an overlap between these two sheets it was considered desirable to distribute the Iran and Iraq tribal maps at the same time despite the fact that my Iraq Report will not appear until 1940. Attempts were made to compile tribal data for eastern Iran but with the exception of certain small areas (Figs. 10, 12, 13) no information was available. To accompany my forthcoming report entitled: "Contributions to the Anthropology of the Cau- casus" Mr. Martin has prepared a large tribal map of the Caucasus region, based on data obtained by us in Tbilsi, Ordzhonikidze and Moscow during 1934. The southern boundaries of this sheet (No. C) adjoin the northern limits of the Iraq and Iran sheets (Nos. A and B). Alphabetical lists of tribal names on maps A and B have been prepared by Miss Dorothy Pedersen and Mr. Peter Gerhard. This present report on Iran must be regarded as the result of preliminary investigations which promise important results in the Introduction 15 future — pro\'ided that the cordial co-operation of the Iran govern- ment is maintained. Dr. A. Hekmat, former Minister of Education, founded a Museum of Ethnology and Archaeology in Tehran with Dr. A. Haas as director. It is, however, desirable that foreign scientists continue their work in Iran until such time as the local anthropologists and archaeologists are trained and qualified to under- take this work and to publish their results. The great cultural and artistic attainments of the Persians during the last six millennia serve to show the importance of the civilization developed on the Iranian Plateau. The true racial position of the ancient and modern peoples of Iran in relation to Europe, Africa, and Asia is a question still to be answered. II. THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE Iran, as Persia is now called, is bounded on the north by the Caspian Sea and the Transcaucasian Federation and Transcaspian region of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; on the east by Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan; on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and on the west by Anatolia (Ryder, p. 227) and Iraq (Ireland, 1937). "Persia" in the strict significance of the word denotes the country inhabited by the people designated as Persians, the district known in ancient times as Persia, which is modern Fars. For many genera- tions, however, the word Persia has been employed to include the entire Iranian Plateau. In March, 1935, the Shah decreed that henceforth "Iran" should be used instead of "Persia." Throughout the following report the word Iran has been substituted for Persia and Irani for Persian subjects. In cases where the new term might be chronologically inconsistent, the old term "Persian" has been employed. Iran comprises, according to Stamp (p. 150), approximately "628,000 square miles, equal to a fifth of Continental United States or larger than the British Isles, France, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, and Germany combined. It is 1,400 miles from north-west to south-east and 875 miles from north to south. "Geologically^ Persia lies in the great Alpine fold belt. In the plains horizontal or slightly folded sandstones, limestones, and chalks of Tertiary and Cretaceous age predominate; the border ranges are highly folded, often over-folded, and have cores of old rocks, gneisses and granites. There is much igneous material, especially in the north-west. In the deserts the solid geology is masked by sands and other superficial deposits." Iran forms the western and larger half of the Iranian Plateau, which stands between the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates and the Indus. Part of Khuzistan and the maritime plains bordering the i"A. F. Stahl, Tersien,' Handb. d. reg. Geol.,Y. 6, (1911); G. E. Pilgrim, 'Geology of the Persian Gulf' and 'Geology of Parts of the Persian Provinces of Fars, Kerman and Laristan,' Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Vol. XXXIV, 1908 and Vol. XLVIII, 1924." (Stamp, pp. 155-156.) See also J. de Morgan, 1905, vol. 3, pt. 1; H. Douvill^, 539-553; J. W. Gregory and others, "The Structure of Asia," Chap. 3, London, 1929; G. Rawlinson, vol. 3, pp. 146-147, 158-163; recent papers in "Palaeontologia Indica" by Douglas, Clegg, Cox, and Spath; Gunther, pp. 345-453; Sykes, 1897, p. 588; Ainsworth, pp. 112-114; Furon, pp. 36-43; Migliorini, pp. 433-436; for earthquakes, see Wilson, 1930b; for landslide in Luristan, see Harrison and Falcon. 16 The Land and the People 17 Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea are the only lowlands of the country. To the northwest the Iranian Plateau is united by the highlands of Armenia with the mountains of Asia Minor, while to the northeast the Paropamisus range and the Hindu Kush Moun- tains link it with the Himalayas and the highlands of Tibet (Cox, p. 548). Ebtehaj (pp. 21-22) states that Iran may be divided geograph- ically into the following zones: (1) The great plateau, bounded on the north by the Elburz range of mountains, on the west and south by the Zagros Mountains and in the east by Afghanistan and Baluchistan, constitutes the largest and most important area. This region, particularly on the east, is interspersed with salt deserts. The average height of the saucer-shaped Iranian Plateau above sea level is about 4,000 feet. (2) The Caspian Sea coastal plain, which lies between the Elburz Mountains and the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, is a narrow belt of fertile land. It has an annual precipitation of from fifty to eighty inches. (3) The coastal plain adjoining the Persian Gulf has a humid climate during certain seasons of the year, but owing to the meager precipitation is, in general, relatively arid. The heart of the country. Stamp (pp. 150-151) points out, "is a great tableland . . . with an elevation of from 3,000 to 5,000 feet. Except on the east, where the plateau merges imperceptibly into that of Afghanistan^ and Baluchistan, it is surrounded by walls of mountains .... The tableland of the interior [in addition to being enclosed by mountains] is itself cut up by lines of mountains with a general trend parallel to that of the boundary ranges. It is only in Eastern Persia that great desert plains are the predominant topo- graphical feature. The plains and valleys which lie between the ranges of the plateau would be utterly sterile w^ere it not for the water derived from the snows of the mountains. "Along the southern borders . . . the mountains in general approach close to the sea; the coastal strip is narrow, dry and barren except in a few areas where sufficient water is available to make irrigation of crops possible. "The mountains of the northern border are loftier and more im- posing, especially the Elburz." This chain is dominated by the 1 For delimitation of the Irano-Afghan Frontier from Sia Kuh (Seistan) to the Hashtadan Plain see JRCAS, vol. 24, p. 672, 1937. 18 Anthropology of Iran extinct volcano of Demavend, northeast of Tehran, which rises to 19,000 feet,i while the upland valley floors stand 4,000 or 5,000 feet I ..J . lllfflT.li™ lilii II Fig. 1. Distribution of rainfall. above sea level, and the peaks of the numerous ranges of north- western Iran rise to 8,000 or 10,000 feet. In general the mountain ranges run from northwest to southeast. The main system, which extends almost unbroken for 800 miles, from Azerbaijan to Baluchistan, may aptly be called the central range. Many peaks rise 9,000 to 10,000 feet in height, and Kuh-i- Hazar, south of Kerman, rises to 14,700 feet (Cox, p. 549). * According to Stamp; but marked 18,600 feet on Bartholomew's map, "The Middle East," scale 1: 4,000,000, Edinburgh Geographical Institute. The Land and the People 19 Of the surface drainage of the Iranian Plateau as a whole less than half flows outward. If we accept the area of Iran as 628,000 square miles, the drainage may thus be distributed: into the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, 135,000 square miles; into the Caspian Sea, 100,000 square miles; into the Seistan depression, 43,000 square miles; into Lake Urmia, 20,000 square miles; and into the interior of Iran, 330,000 square miles. The Caspian watershed is drained by foul' rivers: the Sefid Rud or Qizil Uzun on the southwest, the Haraz on the south, and the Gurgan and Atrek at the southeastern corner of that inland sea. The drainage of the rivers having no out- let to the sea forms inland lakes which often become swamps and finally salt deserts (Cox, p. 549). The great desert region, varying from 100 to 200 miles in width, stretches across the high plateau from northwest to southwest for a distance of approximately 800 miles. Like other parts of southwestern Asia, the greater portion of Iran has an arid and semi-arid climate (Brooks, 1926, pp. 74-79; Kendrew, pp. 148-154; Miller, pp. 248-249). The "Iran type" of climate, remarks Stamp (p. 151), is defined as that of "interior basins at considerable elevations in warm temperate latitudes. In winter the cold is intense, the mean January temperature being slightly above freezing-point. There are sharp frosts at night, and the temperature may even drop below zero. In summer the skies are cloudless, the air dry and clear, so that the sun's rays are exceedingly powerful. Consequently the plateau, despite its elevation, is very little cooler than the Plains of Iraq." Tehran has a daily range of temperature during January of 17.5° F., but in July this increases to 27.9°. The average extremes of temperature are 104° and 19°, while the recorded greatest extremes are 111° and -5°. The relative humidity in January is 69 and in July, 43. In January the amount of cloud is 4.0 and in July 0.9. Snow and thunder have never been recorded in Tehran but there are on an average twenty-seven days of rain annually. Like the Mediterranean lands to the west, Iran is under the influence of low pressures, which pass from west to east across the northern part of the country during the winter season. Precipitation is frequently associated with the passage of these lows, but during the greater part of the year the wind blows from the north. The air therefore moves from higher (colder) to lower (warmer) latitudes and its moisture-holding capacity is increased. Moreover, the air 20 Anthropology of Iran currents move from higher to lower altitudes before they reach the interior of the country (Bergsmark, 1935). The following table records the annual rainfall at a number of cities in Iran and in some of the adjacent territories. Annual Rainfall in Inches {From Cox, p. 550) Height Number Annual rainfall Station Lat. N. Long. E. in feet of years in inches Lenkoran 38° 46' 48° 51' -66 50 4L62 Merv 37° 35' 61° 47' 686 1 6.36 Urmia 37° 28' 45° 8' 6,225 1 21.51 Resht 37° 17' 49° 35' -50 2 56.45 Ashuradeh 36° 54' 53° 55' -80 19 17.07 Asterabad 36° 52' 54° 26' -70 7-8 16.28 Meshed 36° 16' 59° 35' 3,104 26 9.22 Isfahan 32° 40' 51° 44' 5,817 27 4.49 Seistan 31° 0' 62° 0' 2,000 9 1.88 Husainabad 30° 52' 61° 23' 1,600 3-5 2.20 Bushire 28° 59' 50° 53' 14 44 10.39 (From Miller) JFMAMJJASOND Total Cairo 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 1.3 Aden 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 ... 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.9 Baghdad 1.2 1.3 1.3 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.8 1.2 7.0 Jask 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.2 ... 0.1 0.3 1.1 4.5 Karachi 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.9 2.9 1.5 0.5 ... 0.1 0.1 7.7 Astrakhan... 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 5.9 Tehran 1.6 1.0 1.9 1.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 ... 0.1 0.3 1.0 1.3 9.3 During the summer half-year the winds blow almost incessantly from the north, especially over the northern three-fourths of Iran. During July the coastal region of the Gulf of Oman is under the influence of the southwest monsoon. The climate of a country has its effect upon its people, its govern- ment, and its history. It is therefore of interest to know whether there has been any climatic change in Iran during human occupation. Sykes and Huntington believe that the data available warrant the deduction that ancient Iran was more fertile than in modern times. Thus, through deforestation, the effects of military campaigns, and natural factors Iran has become increasingly more arid. Numerous examples of this change of climate can be shown, from Central Asia to the Mediterranean (Field, 1932d, pp. 848-852; 1934, pp. 8-9). In general the vegetation is limited (Rawlinson, vol. 3, pp. 140- 141, 155-158; Ella C. Sykes, pp. 257-259; Fullerton). In Mazan- deran, Gilan, and Asterabad from the Caspian littoral to an altitude of 3,000 feet the flora is similar to that of the "Mediterranean region." In these extensive forests there are alder, ash, beech, boxwood, elm, hornbeam, juniper, maple, oak, walnut, plane, poplar, and willow trees. Sf 001CC>0(M lCt>-^00-^"CJit-tr-»-lt^ COOOiO-<^iOiOCDU3Tjit:-t-C-U3iOTl-o0^iX>t-t-0Ot-t:-O00Oo0OOt~iX>«3CDiX> < H Oh s S !^ re Q) E- S z S C^0000OiC~lOlOC^a5.—(rl».—(i— It^t-t^OO >-» 00 00 C- t~ t- t~ T-H lO ira O CO t~ ■^ 00 t- ^ t- 00 CO CO CO CO 00 t- ;d 00 00 00 00 00 CO CO CD CO ^ o CO eg ■»}< * •>:J< -^ -^ CO -^ -^ CO t- t~ U3 CO ■>* CO -^ lO t, c- t- -^ CO 00 o -^ eg eg oi 00 00 >-H OS c- 1— I CD 1-1 " u5 1- •^ CO CO ■^ lo Tf -^ lo CO CD lo -^ CO eg CO ■<* 1-3 lo CO 00 eg 00 00 o Tf-"* 00 t~ lo CD lo Ti< 05 1— I o lOt--^COCOCO'^COCOlOCDCO-^Tl*OOOCOiCC-lt— -"ItcOCOOO-^CDOO oooseguo coegor-i,— (th,— looo^fioo CO CO I "—I ^00 o CD 1— I I eg lo ^ •>:t IC CJy-^CO CD U5 i ^2 21 22 Anthropology of Iran Other trees found in Iran are the Euphrates poplar (gharah), the blackberry (tarafa), the willow (safsaf), the tamarisk, and the licorice plant (sus). According to W. E. Browne, there are two forest belts south of Shiraz which in the Kuhgalu country merge into one zone. One XI:. \ Forest Grassland Deserts are left blank Fig. 2. Distribution of forests, grasslands, and deserts. belt passes through Deh Dasht, Kazerun, and Firuzabad, while the other follows a line parallel through Sivand. The two belts are about twenty-four miles apart. The main trees are the tragacanth, which yields gum, some of the Platanaceae, and several species of Fagus. In the southern belt the oak is absent while in the Kuhgalu country the majority of the trees belong to the genus Quercus, The Land and the People 23 The agricultural products of Iran include wheat, barley, and rice, which are grown in all districts, and maize, linseed, gram, lentils, cotton, millet, sesame, poppies, opium, tobacco, and indigo. The chief winter crops, sown in December and reaped in April, are wheat, barley, and poppies. The summer crops are rice, maize, linseed, gram, millet, and cotton. Wheat is harvested in July and August in the highlands, and in March in the coastal area, and between these months according to the elevation above sea level. Barley, greater in size than the average Indian barley, is fed to animals, generally without being either crushed or soaked. The har- vest season varies according to the height above sea level; in the coastal belt it is about March and April, and at Shiraz in July. Maize (zurat balal) is used entirely for human consumption. The harvest is in July and August. There are two varieties of millet, known as zurat kalak and alam. The former, similar to but smaller than joivari, is used to adulterate wheat and is fed to poultry. The latter is dark and smaller, resem- bling bajri. Rice, after wheat, is the most important crop in the Irani diet. In Shiraz there are two kinds, shahri and champeh; both are of good quality but generally whiter than Indian rice. In May the seeds are sown in a "nursery." After a month, when the plants are about five inches high, they are transplanted to the fields. A fortnight after transplanting, weeding (vigin) commences. The weeds are not plucked out but trampled down into the mud, a laborious and unhealthy process generally performed by women. This system of transplanting is called the "China" system as opposed to the "Ital- ian" system, where seed is scattered over the field as in wheat and barley sowing. The fields must be kept continuously under water for two or three months until the rice reaches a height of about five feet, when it is reaped with hand sickles, leaving about one foot of stubble. After threshing, the grain may be dried in the sun, but more usually a slow fire is placed underneath it in a small closed barn and it is parched for four or five days, following which it is ready for the mill (abdhang). The grain is poured into a circular hollow of stone, about four and one-half feet in diameter and inserted in the floor. It is then pounded by a log fixed to a long beam which is worked by a water 24 Anthropology of Iran wheel and rises and falls like a sledge hammer, thus breaking off the dry husk. Afterwards the rice is taken up and cleaned in a sieve. Prior to being milled the rice is called shali or jau (Ar.= barley), but after it is husked the regular name hrinj is used. Barley is called jau-i-kuhi to distinguish it from shali. In districts where the soil is rich, rice may be sown every year on the same land, but the usual practice is to raise crops for two or three years in succession and then let the land lie fallow for a similar period. In Mazanderan, on sloping land, which does not become waterlogged, a crop of barley is sometimes raised every third year. The cultivation of rice is most laborious, but the higher price and much higher yield, averaging from 250 to 350 grains of rice for every seed sown, makes it more profitable than wheat or barley, and consequently in districts where both will thrive, rice is the more popular crop. There are two kinds of dall; the commonest, known as adas, is similar to German lentils. The other variety is called mashak; botanists do not recognize it as being of the same family. Similar to the Indian mung, it is softer and cheaper than adas. The pulse most often eaten by the Iranis is nakhud or gram, which, however, is of very much finer quality than Indian gram and is never fed to animals. Vegetables, which are both winter and summer crops, are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the towns. The most important are broad beans (baghala), French beans (luhiya), beetroot (chuqundur), brinjal (badinjun), cabbage {kalam), carrot (zardak or nargisi), cucumber (balang), lettuce (kahu), peas (nakhud), pumpkins (kadu), spinach (isfanaj), tomatoes (badinjun feringhi) , and turnips (shalgham). According to Laufer (1938, p. 88), "Sir John Malcolm (1769- 1833) introduced the potato into Persia, and he himself states (vol. 2, p. 514): 'I took great pains to introduce the potatoe into Persia; and the soil, in many parts, proved very favorable to that vegetable.' It is therefore known as 'Malcolm's plum' (alu-yi Malkam). Malcolm was 'minister plenipotentiary to the Court of Persia from the supreme government of India,' in 1800 and again in 1808 and 1810. The potato is also called in Persian sib-i zamini, sib-i zir-i zamin ('earth apple')." There are also the following fruits: dates, limes, sweet limes, oranges, pomegranates, apricots, grapes, melons, plums, apples, figs, quinces, citrons, pears, and almonds. Dried raisins, figs, and dates, and to a lesser extent dried apricots and peaches, form an important part of the national diet. The Land and the People 25 Indigo is the product of a leguminous plant of the Dizful district, sown in the middle of March and cut 120 days later, when about five feet high; forty days later it is again cut. The best kind of indigo is clear blue, but a large portion of the crop is yellow. Cotton is grown somewhat extensively but the crop is often destroyed by locusts. There are three important grasses: shuraib, fluih, and lucerne,^ which is used largely as both a green and dried fodder. Fluih, which is considered by the natives to have the highest nutritive value, would seem to be dried dhuh grass. These grasses grow on low-lying ground in the spring; in April the crop is at its best and in May it dries up very quickly. No attempt is made to harvest in the spring, the crop being allowed to die and dry on the ground, to be picked up as required during the rest of the year; by this method it naturally loses a great deal of its nutritive value. Ghi, locally known as rughan, is of excellent quality, far better than that obtainable in India. Prepared from sheep's and goats' milk, it is whiter in color than cows' ghi. Sugar, tea, ginger, and turmeric are imported mainly from India, as are most of the chilies used. In 1914 some sugar was grown in Mazanderan (cf. Rabino and Lafont). Salt is obtained from the numerous salt lakes and is plentiful and good. Rock salt is mined in the hills around Kamarij and in Sarvistan. Irrigated lands are divided as follows: land irrigated by rain is called daimi; land irrigated by canals and watercourses is called fariah; land irrigated by water drawn up in skins and deposited into small watercourses is termed dul (cf. charid on the banks of the Tigris River; and Laufer, 1934). Cultivation is carried out with the following implements: a plough (Pers. khish, Ar. fidan), drawn by one or two oxen, which consists of two shafts, at the end of which is fixed a curved piece of wood with an iron head, shaped like a curved arrow (cf . Feilberg) ; a curved saw with wooden handle (Pers. das, Ar. minjal) ; a wooden * Alphonse de Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 103) states that Medicago saliva has been found wild, with every appearance of being an indigenous plant, in Iran. Laufer (1919, p. 208) uses the name "alfalfa" in preference to "lucerne" "in accordance with the practice of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture; it is also a term generally used and understood by the people of the United States. The word is of Arabic origin, and was adopted by the Spaniards, who introduced it with the plant into Mexico and South America in the sixteenth century." See also Laufer, 1919, pp. 208-219 and Hooper and Field, p. 139. 26 Anthropology of Iran fork with five tines (Pers. hochun, Ar. morwagh), used for winnowing barley; a long-handled spade (Pers. bil, Ar. misha); and a pick (Pers. kulang, Ar. fass). The great bulk of the live stock in Iran belongs to the tribes and is therefore migratory and uncertain in numbers in any particular district. The tribes migrate to and from their summer quarters during March and April and again from September to November, and their flocks and herds accompany them. Sheep are numerous and particularly good in the northern provinces. Khuzistan is considered to possess the best sheep in Iran, but the best, actually, are found in the Ramuz district and are of Qashqai not Khuzistan stock. Fallahiyeh district produces the best cows and Hawizeh the finest buffaloes. Donkeys are imported from Zubair. Dizful is famous for its mules, the best being obtained from the Sagwand tribe. Up to the present time no adequate survey of the fauna^ has been made but through individual collectors some American and European museums receive specimens from time to time. In the "Survey of Iraq Fauna made by Members of the Mesopotamia Expeditionary Force, 1915-1918" there are a number of papers on Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, Crustacea, MjTiapoda, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Mollusca. As introductions to these papers the authors have compiled previous data so that these papers form a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the fauna of Iran. In addition to the above references I have selected the following passages for inclusion. According to W. T. Blanford (1872; see also Cox, p. 550) Iran can be divided into five zoological zones: the Iranian Plateau, the provinces south and southwest of the Caspian, west of Shiraz, Khuzistan, and the Persian Gulf littoral. He de- scribed the fauna of the Iranian Plateau as "Palaearctic, with a great prevalence of desert forms ; or perhaps more correctly, as being of the desert type with Palaearctic species in the more fertile regions." In the Caspian provinces the fauna is similar to that of southeastern Europe. Ibex and moufflon are found in the mountain ranges. The leopard and wolf are widely distributed. The tiger is still seen in Mazanderan. Wild asses are found in the salt deserts. Bears still live in the Elburz and Zagros Mountains. There are also wild boar, • See, however, G.Rawlinson, vol. 3, pp. 141-143, 145, 148-150; Giinther, pp. 345- 453; Wells, pp. 501-513; Vaughan, 1893, pp. 114-115, 1896, p. 31; Ella C. Sykes, pp. 238-248. For horse, see Amschler. For references see Casey A. Wood, 1931. The Land and the People 27 fox, jackal, badger, and hare. Game birds are plentiful throughout the country. Over 400 species of birds have been recorded from Iran. Falconry is still practiced (cf. Timur-Mirza Qajar). Alexander Finn (p. 35) comments on the birds^ as follows: "On the Caspian side of the Elburz, snipe, woodcock, pheasants, and duck are . . . abundant .... So far as I know, there are only two kinds of birds in Persia which do not exist in Europe. One is a small partridge known as Tehoo, known to zoologists as Perdrix honhamensis, because the first specimen was brought over by Mr. Bonham, then Consul-General at Tabriz. The other is a large red- legged partridge as large as a small goose, but it is rarely to be found, as it does not live below the snowline." He adds that there are "wolves, leopards, mountain goats, and sheep, wild boar, gazelles, foxes and hares, and once in a while a tiger, and in the south there are lions, but these too are rare." Houtum-Schindler (p. 29) gives the following information regarding amphibians^ and reptiles: "The amphibians are poorly represented by a few varieties of frogs and toads, guk, ghuk, kur- bagheh, kurvagh, vazagh. "Of reptiles there are tortoises, kasa-pusht, sang-pusht,^ lak-pusht, kashaf; and many species of lizards, susmar, bozdush, bozmijeh,* chalpaseh, marmaluk, malmali; and some snakes. Of the last there are some colubrines and a few vipers. I have seen one Cerastes,^ mar-i-shakh-dar, i.e. horned snake, which had been caught in Veramin, southeast of Tehran." Sir Arnold Wilson (1932a, pp. 71-72) gives the following general description: "Persia is not a paradise for sportsmen. The lion, so common fifty years ago, is now extinct. The leopard and bear sur- vive, but are rare except in the Bakhtiari and Kuhgalu country. The mountain goat (ibex) [probably Capra hircus aegagrus] and mountain sheep are commoner, but are restricted for the most part to the most waterless and least attractive areas. The francolin is met with in fair numbers in South-West Persia, but it affords but > See S. V. P. Pill, "Bird Life in Southern Iran," in "The Naft," November, 1935, and C. E. Capito, "Notes on the Birds of South- West Persia, "in "The Naft," November, 1932. "The Naft" is published monthly by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, London. See also Capito, 1931 ; Scott, 1938; Ella C. Sykes, pp. 248-253; G. Rawlinson, vol. 3, pp. 142, 149-150; and Casey A. Wood, 1931. 2 See also G. Rawlinson, vol. 3, pp. 143-144, 151-155, and Giinther, pp. 378-381. ' "Saenpuscht according to Pallas is the tortoise Emys orbicularis L." * "Believed to suckle goats, this lizard is the Uromastix asmussi Strauch." * This is probably Pseudocerastes persicus D. and B. (cf. Schmidt, pp. 227-229). 28 Anthropology of Iran little sport, as it is apt to refuse to rise. The inhabitants, hardy mountaineers, and not infrequently with ample leisure, are forever scouring the hills in search of anything that will give an excuse for a shot in season and out of season. Males, females and young — in fact, whatever has life is hunted downi and shot. Stalked from every side, and not recognizing the demarcation laid down by man, a wounded bird is frequently the cause of a hunters' quarrel, the commencement perhaps of a tribal feud." In Iran the members of the Expedition • collected for the Field Museum Department of Zoology specimens of mammals, amphib- ians, reptiles, fish, and insects.^ At the present time reports on these collections are being prepared. An outline of the history of Iran will show the influence of in- vaders upon the modern peoples. Duiing the Paleolithic period the climate of Iran was different from that of modern times. The rainfall was heavier over south- western Asia and as a result there was much less desert region. Despite the fact that Paleolithic implements have been found only near lakes Niriz and Maharlu (Appendix D), it seems plausible to suggest that prehistoric man migrated into Iran from Central Asia. The excavations at Susa by de Morgan and others, at Anau by Pumpelly, at Persepolis by Herzfeld, and at Damghan and Rayy by Schmidt, have yielded the general sequence of historical events during the past six thousand years. The cultural contacts between Persia and Mesopotamia on the west and the Indus Valley on the east are slowly being reconstructed. According to Sir Denison Ross (pp. 30 et seq.) the history of Iran^ "falls naturally into two distinct periods, the pre-Islamic and the Islamic, the di\iding point being the overthrow of the Sasanians by the Arabs in the third decade of the seventh century of our era. These two periods occupy each 1,290 years: from Cyrus to the Arab conquest, 550 B.C. to a.d. 641; and from the Arab conquest to the present day, A.D. 1930 .... As far as we know, the earliest Iranians to settle in what we now call Persia were the Medes, who, migrating ^ Dr. Walter P. Kennedy (pp. 745-749) includes Mollusca, Arthropoda, Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Ophidia and Chelonia, some of which were obtained by him at Rayy, Iran, where he joined the Field Museum Near East Anthropo- logical Expedition, 1934. These specimens are in the Royal College of Medicine, Baghdad. * Reports on Hemiptera and Orthoptera were published by Field Museum during 1938 by W. E. China and B. P. Uvarov (see Bibliography). ' Cf. Browne (1909); Grousset. For creation legends see Christensen. The Land and the People 29 from the region of Transoxiana or Turkestan, established them- selves . . . between Rhages [Rayy] and Ekbatana [Hamadan] in the northwest, probably in the 8th century B.C. . . . The earliest prophet of the old religion of Iran . . . was Spitama Zarathushtra [Zoroaster] . . . who lived in the sixth century B.C. during the reigns of Cyrus, Cam- byses, and Darius I." Zoroaster preached a religion attempting to combine the co-existence of good and evil. His followers worshipped the sun and fire. "Muslim historians alleged that among phenomena witnessed at the birth of the Prophet Muhammad was the sudden extinction of the Sacred Fire of the Zoroastrians." At Naksh-i- Rustam there stands a pair of fire altars (Plate 99, Fig. 1) carved from rude stone, which perhaps antedate the Achaemenian period. The so-called "tomb of Zoroaster" (Plate 98) is near this place (Sprengling, pp. 126-144). With regard to the disposal of the dead, the Zoroastrians believe that "to bury a body would defile the pure earth, which is one of the gifts of Ahuramazda, and to burn it would defile his symbol, the Sacred Fire. Bodies are therefore exposed on towers (dakhma) specially constructed for the purpose, to be devoured by birds of prey. The priests . . . were known as the Magi." The sacred writings of the Magi are contained in the Avesta. "About the beginning of the seventh century B.C. another group of Iranians, also coming from . . . Turkestan, . . . settled in the country south of Media . . . known as Parsua, and from this place- name they derived the ethnic Parsa which in turn gave this name to the province known to-day as Fars . . . formerly called Anshan." Hakhamanish, whose name in Greek became Achaemenes, was the first tribal chief in Parsua. Theispes, the first king of the Achae- menian dynasty, led his people into Anshan, a district of ancient Elam, destroyed by Assurbanipal, King of Assyria, in 645 B.C. This event was probably recorded in Jeremiah (XLIX: 34-39) in the following passage: "The word of the Lord that came to Jeremiah the prophet against Elam in the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah, the King of Judah, saying, thus saith the Lord of Hosts; Behold, I will break the bow of Elam, the chief of their might. And upon Elam will I bring the four winds from the four quarters of heaven, and will scatter them toward all those winds; and there shall be no nation whither the outcasts of Elam shall not come. For I will cause Elam to be dismayed before their enemies, and before them that seek their life: and I will bring evil upon them, even my fierce anger, saith the Lord; 30 Anthropology of Iran and I will send the sword after them, till I have consumed them: and I will set my throne in Elam, and will destroy from thence the king and the princes, saith the Lord. But it will come to pass in the latter day that I will bring again the captivity of Elam, saith the Lord." The foundations of modern Iran were laid by Cyrus II, who came to the throne of Pars in 559 B.C. Nine years later he utterly defeated Astyages, King of Media, and thus joined the Achaemenids and Medes into one empire. In 546 B.C. Cyi'us defeated Croesus, then King of Media. The following six years were occupied with wars against the Scythians. In 538 B.C. Babylon was captured. The king- dom founded by Cyrus had capitals at Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa, and Ekbatana. Thus arose a spirit of national unity, which has never died. During the reign of Cyrus the Jewish exile terminated and a Zionist movement took place. According to Ezra (li: 64) "the whole congregation together was forty and two thousand three hundred and three score." In 529 B.C. Cyrus died in battle and was buried at Pasargadae, where his tomb now stands (Plate 99, Fig. 2). Cambyses, his son, succeeded him and added the conquest of Egypt and Ethiopia to the Achaemenid Empire. During the thirty-five-year reign of Darius I, who succeeded Cambyses, the emperor crossed the Bosphorus (512 B.C.) to the Danube but retired with heavy losses inflicted by the journey and by the Scythian nomads. In 490 B.C. Miltiades defeated the Persian army at the battle of Marathon. Darius, who died five years later, was succeeded by his son, Xerxes, the Biblical Ahasuerus (see Ezra iv: 6; Daniel ix: 1; Esther, passim). The Persians were de- feated by the Greeks at Salamis and Plataea. In 339 B.C. Artaxerxes III came to the throne and re-established Persian domination in many countries. At the battle of Chaeronea (338 B.C.) Philip of Macedon defeated the confederate Greek states, and in 334 B.C. his son Alexander crossed the Hellespont, defeated the armies of Darius Codomannus, and thus made himself ruler from the Nile Valley to Persepolis. During the next five hundred years the history of Iran can be divided into two dynasties, that of the Seleucids, or successors of Alexander, 323 B.C. to 140 B.C., and that of the Parthian Arsacids,^ 256 B.C. to A.D. 226. A few years later was born Mani, the founder of the Manichaean dualistic religion. A claimant to the true line of the Achaemenids, Ardashir Babagan, founded the Sasanian djTiasty, which flourished for about four hundred years. 1 See Debevoise, 1938. The Land and the People 31 During the following thousand years there were invasions from Central Asia, Turkey, and Mesopotamia. The invasions by Genghis Khan and by his grandson, Hulagu Khan, who was appointed in the year 1256 to rule over Iran, as well as the campaigns of Tamerlane in 1380, brought Mongoloid peoples into this country. It is thus to Fig. 3. Communications within Iran. be surmised that each invader left some indelible mark on the physical characters of the peoples of Iran. In the year 1502 Shah Ismai'il founded the Safavid dynasty, which ruled Iran down to the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1736 the Afghans under Nadir Shah conquered the country. During his reign of eleven years the Persian Empire extended from the Caucasus to the Indus. In 1779 Agha Muhammed founded the 32 Anthropology of Iran Qajar dynasty, which lasted down to the time of the World War. In April, 1926, Riza Khan became Shah of Persia, a position which he has occupied since that time with the greatest distinction and success, under the name of Riza Shah Pahlavi. Among many modern improvements introduced by the Shah can be numbered the total disarmament of the population, with the resultant coordination of the tribesmen into a semblance of national unity, and the establishment of greater facilities for trans- portation and communication. Therefore, from the anthropological point of view it is most desirable to m^ake detailed studies of the people of Iran before the rapidly advancing wave of western civi- lization carries their ancient traditions and folklore beyond recall. Since few accurate census figures are available I have compiled several estimates, which of necessity show some discrepancies but at the same time indicate the general range of probability for any given area.^ Henri Mass6 (pp. 24-38) published notes obtained in Tehran during 1922-23 dealing with birth, circumcision, marriage, etc. In 1934 Basile Nikitine (pp. 78-79) obtained the following population figures (in thousands) from Tehran: District Population District Population Abadan 130 Ghermrud 65 Abadeh 63 Gulpaigan 90 Amul and Nur 70 Gunabad 63 Arak 250 Hechterud 75 Ardebil 85 Isfahan 570 Ashraf (see Sari) Jahrum (see Kasir) Asterabad and Sehneh 270 Jandaq (see Samnan) Baluchistan 200 Kashan 100 Barfrush 120 Kasir and Jahrum 84 Behbehan 78 Kazerun and Mamassani 72 Bijar 59 Kazvin 250 Bujnurd 70 Kerman 579 Bulak-eh-Sabeh (see Shiraz) Kermanshah and Qasr 220 Burujird and Luristan 175 Khalkhal 44 Bushire 121 Khoi and Shapur (ancient Salmas) . 305 Damghan 40 Kurdistan (Sehneh) 146 Darab and Sabeh 88 Lahijan (Enzeli)^ 437 Dashti and Dashtistan 91 Lar 72 Dashtistan (see Dashti) Luristan (see Burujird) Dehkhwarkan 65 Mahallat 23 Dizful 115 Maku 66 Erwenek 140 Malayer and Tuisarkan 160 Estehbanat (see Niriz) Mamassani (see Kazerun) Firuzabad and dependencies 61 Maragheh 165 1 Cf . population figures recorded in 1820 by Gordon, p. 72; and Migliorini, p. 438. 2 According to the RGS Permanent Committee on Geographical Names, Enzeli is the old form of Pahlevi and thus there seems to be some confusion between the figures for Resht and Pahlevi and Lahijan (Enzeli). The Land and the People 33 District Population Meshed 310 Mohammerah 95 Nasiri and Ram Hormuz 165 Niriz and Estehbanat 100 Nishapur 115 Nur (see Amul) Pahlevi (see Resht) Qainat 73 Qaraja Dagh 65 Qasr (see Kermanshah) Quchan 57 Qum 120 Ram Hormuz (see Nasiri) Resht and Pahlevi 260 Rezayeh (Urmia) 120 Sabeh (see Darab) Sabzawar 130 Sain Qal'eh 45 Samnan and Jandaq 40 Sarab 65 Sari and Ashraf 140 Saujbulagh 40 District Population Saveh 110 Sehneh (see Asterabad) Seistan 40 Shahrud 62 Shapur (see Khoi) Shiraz and "seven cantons," also Bulak-eh-Sabeh 250 Shushtar 38 Tabas 64 Tabriz 310 Tehran 550 Tuisarkan (see Malayer) Tunakabun 90 Turbat-i-Haidari 60 Turbat-i-Shaikh Jam 35 Turshiz 55 Yakherz-Khawaf 49 Yezd 200 Zenjan 270 Total 10,000,000 According to Ebtehaj (p. 27) the population of Iran has been decreasing gradually since the reign of Fath Ali Shah, when it was estimated at about 50,000,000 persons, and was reduced by 50 per cent when Caucasia, Turkestan, and Baluchistan were separated from Iran. In 1935 the "Enciclopedia Italiana" gave the total population as 15,055,155.' The more important towns are listed, with the number of their inhabitants: Town Population Tehran 360,251 Tabriz 219,949 Meshed 139,350 Shiraz 119,850 Isfahan 100,140 Ramadan 99,852 Resht 89,876 Kermanshah 70,159 Kazvin 60,013 Town Population Kerman 59,525 Sultanabad 54,987 Urmia 49,843 Zenjan 45,612 Maragheh 45,372 Ardebil 44,808 Pahlevi 41,997 Abadan 40,055 According to Ebtehaj (p. 28) about 14,000,000 of the population adhere to the Mohammedan Shiah faith, which has been declared by constitutional law the official religion of the country. Approxi- mately 1,000,000 Persians, principally Kurds in northwestern Iran, are of the Sunni sect. Safei is another branch of Mohammedanism, which has about 700,000 believers among the Kurds. Another branch of Mohammedanism, Hanafi, has followers among the Turkomans and other tribes of Khurasan in the Hazara and Jamshidieh districts. Ismaileyeh, under the leadership of the Agha 1 Simmonds (page v), writing in 1935, estimates the population at about 12,000,- 000, giving an appro3{im?ite average density of nineteen persons to the square mile. 34 Anthropology of Iran Khan, has a considerable number of adherents in Khurasan. Other religions comprise Christians (Armenians, Chaldeans, Greek Ortho- dox, Roman Catholics, and Protestants; cf. Hoare, 1937, also "Iran Towns 10,000 - 25,000 ZSPOO- 50^00 D 50,000 - 75,000 s Tspoo - nofioo m ioo,ooo> 100 200 300 Ka Scole^ Fig. 4. Distribution of population (after Enciclopedia Italiana). Mission"), about 120,000; Jews, 45,000; and Zoroastrians, 14,000. The Bahais number about 100,000 followers. The authorities on Iran, such as Curzon, Sykes, and Wilson, give full accounts of the religious beliefs but since Ebtehaj is the most recent author his figures are quoted here. Simmonds (page v) states that the number of schools has been greatly increased in recent years, the figure in 1935 being given as 4,855 in the whole country, as compared with less than 2,000 ten The Land and the People 35 years ago. Under the progressive encouragement of the Minister of Education, schools are being opened throughout the country and educational facilities are increasing.' Also, by order of the Shah improvements in transportation, communications and public health service are progressing rapidly so that the general condition of the peoples of Iran is becoming ameliorated. 1 See also Sadiq, pp. 44-123; Shadman, 1937; Simmonds, p. 37; and Gray, p. 28. III. HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEOPLES OF IRAN During the search for comparative anthropological and anthro- pometric data I found relatively few authors who had recorded observations or proposed theories on the origins and physical relation- ships of the peoples of Iran. Some of these writers, however, de- scribed various sections of the population in considerable detail and since the lack of a contemporary compilation of the more important historical references to the anthropological problems must be recognized by any student of Iran I feel it desirable to quote exten- sively from these various sources. For further original contributions on Iran, the reader is referred to the list of bibliographical references given by Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, pp. 16-18). Authorities Cited Date Author Date Author B.C. 1899 William Z. Ripley ca.445 Herodotus 1902 Percy M. Sykes A.D. 1914 Alexander Finn ca.360 Ammianus Marcellmus 1915 gir Percy M. Sykes ca.950 Al-Istakhri 1919 ;;;;;;; ; Jivanji Jamshedji Modi 1599 Antony Sherley 1919 Berthold Laufer 1650 Pietro della Valle 1924 A. C. Haddon 1684 Pater Angelus (Labrosse) 1925 A. H. Sayce 1686 Sir John Chardin 1925; '.'..'.'.'. ! Joseph Deniker 1815 Sir John Malcolm 1926 W. Ivanov 1828 Frederic Shoberl 1927 '.'.'.'.'..'.'. William H. Worrell 1843 J. C. Prichard 1928 Hadi Hasan 1846 Austen Henry Layard 1928 Phihp K. Hitti 1858 Anders Retzius 1929 L. H. Dudley Buxton 1863 E. Duhousset 1929 Sir George MacMunn 1866 Nicolas de Khamkoff 1930 Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah 1875 G. R. Aberigh-Mackay 1930 Bernard E. Read 1880 George Rawhnson 1932 Sir Arnold T. Wilson 1880 H. W. Bellew 1935 Ernst Herzfeld 1887 Frederic Houssay 1936 George G. Cameron 1889 C. R. Conder 1936 Sir Aurel Stein 1891 Isabella L. Bishop 1937 a. M. Tallgren 1892 George N. Curzon 1937 v. V. Ginzburg 1894 N. P. Danilov 1937 Alexandre Baschmakoflf 1895 Daniel G. Brinton r gmst Herzfeld 1895 Charles de Ujfalvy 1933 J and 1896 A. Houtum-Schindler [ Sir Arthur Keith Several methods of arranging the excerpts presented themselves. After careful consideration and discussion with Dr. Hooton, I decided to cite the extracts from the selected authors in chrono- logical order. A detailed index of tribes (pp. 601-651) will assist the reader to find information on specific anthropological criteria. Wherever translations have been made, especially in the cases of de Khanikoff and Houssay, despite the fact that they are in free 36 Historical References 37 style, quotation marks have been used so that there can be no question regarding their origin. In order to standardize the spelling in passages not quoted directly from English authors, some words have been altered to conform to the style employed in Field Museum publications. These changes apply particularly to the spellings of place names which, wherever possible, follow the style adopted by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names of the Royal Geographical Society in London. When the name in a quotation is not immediately recognizable, words in square brackets have been added to elucidate the text. In the index all variations will be referred to the accepted form of the place name. Ca. Ji.U5 B.C. — For our earliest observations on the Persians by Herodotus I have used the translation by Rawlinson, edited and embellished with meticulous footnotes by A. W. Lawrence.^ Herodotus (iv, 37) writes that "the Persians inhabit a country which extends to the southern or Erythraean Sea; above them, to the north, are the Medes; beyond the Medes, the Saspeirians; beyond them, the Colchians, reaching to the northern sea [Black Sea], into which the Phasis empties itself. These four nations fill the whole space from one sea to the other." With regard to the tribes Herodotus (I, 125) states: "... Now the Persian nation is made up of many tribes. Those which Cyrus assembled and persuaded to revolt from the Medes, were the princi- pal ones on which all the others are dependent. These are the Pasargadae, the Maraphians, and the Maspians, of whom the Pasargadae are the noblest. The Achaemenidae, from whom spring all the Perseid kings, form one of their clans. The rest of the Persian tribes are the following: the Panthialaeans, the Derusiaeans, the Germanians, who were engaged in husbandry; the Daans, the Mar- dians, the Dropicans, and the Sagartians, who are Nomads." Lawrence contributes the following footnote: "The Persian tribes, like those of other oriental peoples, were perpetually dissolving and reforming; thus Xenophon makes the total number twelve instead of ten, and isolated detachments of those named here were later found all over the Middle East (Hommel, Ethnol. u. Geog. des alten Orients, 1926, p. 197). Some of the tribal chiefs held powerful positions at the Achaemenian court, and the tribes themselves had at this time the usual distinctions in rank and privileges. The Sagartians are the only Persians named among the peoples who 1 Brother of Colonel T. E. Lawrence. 38 Anthropology of Iran paid tribute (III, 93); this may refer to an isolated branch, but perhaps the nomadic tribes were not exempted from tribute. "The Pasargadae are also called by the Greeks Parsagadae, a name subsequently applied to a tribe in Carmania (Ptol. vi, 8, 12; Herzfeld, Klio, \aii, 1908, p. 19). A place of this name formed Cyrus' capital, seventy miles north-east of Shiraz, and it is questionable whether the Greeks were not mistaken in supposing a tribe to be so called; Darius describes himself as a Parsa, a Persian proper, and that may be the correct tribal name (Andreas, Verh. d. XIII. Intern. Orient. — Kongr., p. 96). "From the Achaemenids, nominally if not actually the descendants of Achaemenes, were sprung both branches of the royal family, that of Cyrus and that of Darius .... "The Germanians were usually called Carmanians; they lived round Kirman which takes its name from them. Although classical authors describe their manner of life and religion as similar to that of the other Persians, they were commonly considered as a distinct people. It is plain that their culture was more primitive; they indulged in head-hunting (iv, 64 n.), and preserved the rite of blood- brotherhood (I, 74, n. 5). Daans (AAOI) or Dahae were found elsewhere in Iran, especially east of the Caspian (i, 201 n.) The Iranian form appears in the Avesta as Daha, which may have meant something like 'barbarians,' if it is derived from dahyu, 'country' (Christensen, Iranier, pp. 217, 236). The Mardians also bore an opprobrious name, for Marda may be roughly translated 'rascals,' and they, too, occur elsewhere; indeed it is questionable whether either term, Dahae or Mardian, carried a racial significance. The Mardi or Amardi of northern Iran (near Tehran) received a regular subsidy from the Achaemenian kings in return for good conduct, and are described as 'a warlike tribe with habits repugnant to the manners of the Persians. They dig caverns in the mountains, in which they inhume themselves with their wives and children: they feed on flesh, either that of their herds, or of wild animals. The women are not of a softer nature than the men: their hair is shaggy; and their garments do not reach the knees. They bind the forehead with a sling, making an ornament of a weapon' (Q. Curtius, v. 6. 21). "The Dropici appear in Stephanus Byzantinus as Derbicci; Ptolemy mentions Dribyces on the Caspian, while Derbiccae or Derbices or Terbissi lived to the east in Turkestan (n. on 201). These names may be based on the Iranian drigu or drivi, 'wretched,' Historical References 39 and thus apply to all manner of races (Marquart, Untersuch. i, p. 31 n., 136; ii, p. 139 n. 1, 142, 170 n. 2; Christensen, Iranier, pp. 236, 253 n. 4). The Sagartians are called in Old Persian Agagarta (5 representing a strong sibilant) ; this might mean 'land of caves,' and would apply well enough to the tribal home in the northern Zagros mountains. But other Sagartians lived somewhere nearer the centre of modern Persia, these being the tribesmen taxed in company with peoples of south-eastern Iran (ill, 93; Sarre and Herzfeld, Iran. Felsreliefs, p. 23). "In the Assyrian period a minor nation called by Semites Zikirtu lived in Parsua in the northern Zagros, but the connection between Zikirtu and Agagarta cannot be firmly established (Streck, Z. f. Ass. xiv, p. 146). These names have also been connected with that of the Kurds, which begins in Greek and Latin with Gord- or Kord- (1, 189, n. 2). The Cyrtians, found according to Strabo both on the Caspian and among the Persians, have also been regarded as Kurds, with more philological than geographical justification (xi. 523; xiv. 727). Strabo also includes among Persian tribes the Patischorians, inhabitants of a place or district called Patishuvara; Gobryas, the Bearer of the King's Spear, is described on Darius' tomb as a Patishuvari." Herodotus (i, 101) continues: "Thus Deioces collected the Medes^ into a nation, and ruled over them alone. Now these are the tribes of which they consist:- the Busae, the Paretaceni, the Struchates, the Arizanti, the Budii, and the Magi." Giantism in ancient times was considered miraculous; Hero- dotus (vil, 117) describes a Persian giant in these words: "It was while he remained here that Artachaees, who presided over the canal, fell sick and died. He was a man in high repute with Xerxes, and by birth an Achaemenid; moreover he was the tallest'^ of all the Persians, being only four fingers short of five cubits, royal measure,^ and had a stronger voice than any other man in the world." ' In the Encyclopaedia Biblica (p. 3664), London, 1902, appears: "It is quite certain that the founders of this empire, the Medo-Persians, were not the original inhabitants of the country. They belonged to the Aryan stock." ^ Lawrence notes that "the Median tribes then, as now, must have included both settled and nomadic peoples, but at the present day the proportion of nomads is much smaller here than farther south where the Persian nomadic tribes lived." ' In September, 1934, I was informed that there lived in Shiraz a giant named Sia-Kuh (= Man-mountain), whose stature exceeded seven feet. * Lawrence notes that "the Royal cubit measured 20 inches (i, 178, n. 3); thus Artachaees was over 8 foot tall." 40 Anthropology of Iran The earliest reference to Persian skulls is that of Herodotus (III, 12) regarding Peluse. "On the field where this battle was fought I saw a very wonderful thing which the natives pointed out to me. The bones of the slain lie scattered upon the field in two lots, those of the Persians in one place by themselves, as they had been divided at the first — those of the Egyptians in another place apart from them: If, then, you strike the Persian skulls, even with a pebble, they are so weak, that you break a hole in them; but the Egyptian skulls are so strong, that you may smite them with a stone and you will scarcely break them in. They gave me the following reason for this difference, which seemed to me likely enough: — The Egj^Dtians (they said) from early childhood have the head shaved, and so by the action of the sun the skull becomes thick and hard. The same cause prevents baldness in Egypt, where you see fewer bald men than in any other land. Such, then, is the reason why the skulls of the Egjrptians are so strong. The Persians, on the other hand, have feeble skulls, because they keep themselves shaded from the first, wearing the hats they call tiaras. What I have here mentioned I saw with my own eyes, and I observed also the like at Papremis, in the case of the Persians who were killed with Achaemenes, the son of Darius, by Inarus the Libyan." Ca. A.D. 360. — Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiii, 6, 75, 80) gives the following contemporaneous account of the Persians:^ "They are nearly all slight in figure, swarthy or rather of a pale livid com- plexion; fierce-looking, with goat-like eyes, and eyebrows arched in a semicircle and joined, with handsome beards, and long hair .... They are so loose in their gait, and move with such correct ease and freedom, that you would think them effeminate, though they are most formidable at a distance. They abound in empty words, and speak wildly and fiercely; they talk big, are proud, unmanageable, and threatening alike in prosperity and adversity; they are cunning, arrogant and cruel, exercising the power of life and death over their slaves, and all low-born commoners." In another passage (xxiv, 14) he writes: "ex virginibus, quae speciosae sunt captae, ut in Perside, ubi feminarum pulchritudo excellit." (For additional classical references see Rawlinson, vol. 2, p. 308.) Ca. 950. — Abu Ishak al-Istakhri, celebrated Moslem traveler and geographer, observed in Khuzistan that "Persian, Arabic, and ^ In a footnote to Herodotus (l, 125), Lawrence adds that "a general account of the Iranians of a.d. 400 must apply on the whole to the Achaemenian Persians." Historical References 41 Khuzi were spoken. The external appearance of the inhabitants of this province was yellow and emaciated, the beard scanty and in general their hair less abundant than that of other peoples." (Houssay, p. 127.) 1599. — Antony Sherley, head of a Dutch Embassy to Persia, describes (p. 10) ^ King Abbas as a man of excellent physique but he remarks on his brown skin color "as though he had been burned by the sun." i^50.— Pietro della Valle (pp. 105-106) wrote: "These men (the Gaurs), almost like the Persians of today, are of rather coarse type." 168J^. — Pater Angelus, whose name was Labrosse, states (p. 136), that "one can see their ancient facial type among the Gaurs,^ the fire-worshippers, who are hardly less ugly than monkeys."* 1686.— ^\r John Chardin (French ed. 1711, p. 34), who made two journeys to Persia, one in 1664-70" and one in 1671-77, writes: "The stock of Persia is naturally coarse; that is evident among the Gabrs, who are the descendants of the ancient Persians." He adds that "the ancient Persian race was ugly and malformed, resembling the Mongols, and that the type of beauty so common among modern Persians is their heritage from Circassian and Georgian concubines." This opinion, Prichard has remarked, is probably based on a confu- sion of the Hats with the Persians, a statement which de Khanikoff (p. 50) firmly refutes as impossible. Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 492) writes that "Chardin . . . attributed the dearth of people to four subsidiary causes, namely, unnatural vice, immoderate luxury, early marriages, and constant migration to the Indies. Malcolm, in the early part of the present century, estimated the population as about 6,000,000, balancing against the checks upon its growth, which were identical with those named by Chardin, the following advantages, viz., 'the salubrity of the climate, the cheapness of provisions, the rare occurrence of famine,^ the bloodless character of their civil wars, their obligation to marry, and the com- 1 This was translated by Mr. David Gustafson from the Dutch. The quotation marks signify a literal translation. 2 These are presumably the Gabrs, the majority of whom now live in Yezd. ' "The exaggeration of this observation has been justly criticized by Ouseley in Volume III of his Voyage, p. 355, note 13." (De Khanikoff, p. 48.) * See also the report of Daulier-Deslandes, 1673. 5 Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 492) comments in a footnote: "This cannot, I think, be said with truth. In the second half of this century famines of greater or less severity have occurred at intervals of about ten years." 42 Anthropology of Iran paratively small number of prostitutes." Then Curzon elaborates in a footnote: "Dr. J. E. Polak, who was a physician, in his Report on Persia in 1873, gave the following as the main causes of the decline of the population: (1) The unfavorable position of women, including the facility of divorce, early marriage and premature age, the length of the suckling period, and the thereby impaired fertility of the sex; (2) decay of sanitary police, and consequent greater ravages by typhus, dysentery, cholera, plague, and, more particularly, owing to the inadequacy of inoculation, by small-pox — the mortality of children in the second year of their age being very striking; (3) the exterminating wars of the Tartars, Mongols, and Afghans, the raids of the Turkomans in the eastern provinces, and sale of the inhabitants in the slave markets of Khiva and Bokhara, civil wars, and the mortality among soldiers enlisted for life, but swept away in masses before properly acclimatised to the different garrison stations; (4) emigration of non-Mussulman elements, such as Guebres [Gabrs], Christians, and Jews, to In^lia, the Caucasus, and Turkey; (5) oft-recurring famine, caused by dearth of rain and snow, but intensified to the highest degree by want of means of communication, prejudice against the corn trade, bad condition of water channels, and misgovernment." Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 492) continues: "Rawlinson in 1850 estimated the population as 10,000,000; but in 1873, after two deso- lating visitations of cholera and famine, as 6,000,000. The figures given by other writers during the last twenty years vary between 5,000,000 and 10,000,000. Nor, indeed, is any estimate based upon data that are either scientific or reliable. No census is taken in Persia, the machinery or means for doing so in at all an adequate fashion not being in existence, and the idea being repugnant to the religious orders." 1815. — From Sir John Malcolm's "History of Persia" incidental passages regarding the population and relevant to this report have been extracted and quoted below. With reference to estimates of the population, Malcolm (vol. 2, pp. 518-521) writes: "In a manuscript, which professes to be taken from state papers in the reign of Shah Sultan Hussein, and which enters into all the details of the numbers of the different tribes and citizens, the total amount of the subjects of the Monarch of Persia is gravely stated at upwards of two hundred millions! An European trav- eler (Chardin), who made his estimate near a century earlier, expresses his belief that the inhabitants of that kingdom are about forty Historical References 43 millions: but an eminent geographer (Pinkerton) on the conclusion that the population of Persia and Candahar does not exceed that of Asiatic Turkey, computes their number at ten millions; of which he thinks four may be allotted to the provinces of Candahar, and six to what he terms Western Persia, or, in other words, the limits of the present kingdom: and this estimate is probably not very remote from truth. It gives a.bout one hundred to the square mile; and, though some parts of Persia may far exceed that calculation, there are large tracts of desert which are totally uninhabited .... "Within the last twelve years the number of the citizens of Isfahan has nearly doubled,' in consequence of the excellent local administration of that city, which has induced its former inhabitants to return from the villages near the mountains, where they had taken shelter from violence and oppression .... "Though the population of Persia has perhaps diminished in a very considerable degree since the invasion of the Affghans, it has, no doubt, increased within the last twenty years, and may be said to be, at this period, rapidly increasing. But this observation only applies to the Mohammedan inhabitants of that country. The despised Jews are much decreased in numbers; and the persecuted Guebers [Gabrs], whose residence is confined to a quarter of the city of Yezd, are probably over estimated, when computed at four thousand families. The colony of Armenians, settled in a suburb of Isfahan, which formerly amounted to two thousand five hundred families, some of whom were of great opulence, do not now amount to five hundred, none of whom are wealthy; and this race has di- minished in a still greater proportion in all other parts of the empire. The whole of the Armenians in Persia are calculated, in an estimate made of their number by order of the Bishop of Julfa, to amount to twelve thousand three hundred and eighty-three souls, which is said to be not more than a sixth of their number before the Affghan invasion." - According to Malcolm (vol. 2, p. 630) : "The whole of this com- munity [Kazvin, Tabriz, Hamadan, Shiraz, Yezd, Qum, Kashan, and Isfahan] may be deemed, as far as regards their personal appearance, 1 "The population of this city, when it was the capital of the Suffavean Kings, was, if we can credit the European travellers by whom it was visited, between six and seven hundred thousand. When I went to Persia in 1800, it was not supposed to exceed one hundred thousand; and it is now calculated at nearly two hundred thousand." ^ "I owe this enumeration of the Armenian population in Persia to Captain Frederick, who obtained it from the Bishop of Julfa. The statement made out by the bishop is very particular, and has every appearance of being correct." 44 Anthropology of Iran a fine race of men: they are not tall; but it is rare to see any of them diminutive or deformed, and they are in general strong and active. Their complexions vary from a dark olive to a fairness which ap- proaches that of a northern European: and if they have not all the bloom of the latter, their florid healthy look often gives them no inconsiderable share of beauty." "For a short time the legions of Rome [vol. 2, pp. 207-210] had occupied a part of Carduchia [Kurdistan], but they had probably possession of little more than their military positions: and it is remarkable, that none of the numerous Tartar tribes who have overrun Persia, have ever permanently established themselves in this province, 1 which is still inhabited by an original and rude race; who, though they have departed from the religion, maintain the usages and habits of their forefathers, and speak a barbarous dialect of the ancient language of Persia. "The causes which have enabled this people to preserve their soil from strangers are obvious. Their country is mountainous and barren; and the few beautiful and fertile valleys, which are inter- spersed among its clustering hills, offer no adequate temptation to reward the effort that would be necessary to its complete reduction: for its warlike and robust inhabitants are singularly attached to their native land; and the conquest of their rugged mountains would be found as difficult to make, as it would prove unprofitable to maintain .... "The districts of Kurdistan which lie near the Tigris and in the vicinity of Bagdad, admit the supremacy of the Turkish govern- ment; while those that are situated more to the northward and eastward profess to be under the protection of the King of Persia. Among the latter chiefs, the Waly, or Prince of Ardelan, is by far the most powerful. His territories, which border on Irak and Ader- bijan, are nearly two hundred miles in length, and about one hundred and sixty in breadth. The revenues of this tract are not great; but its princes, who maintain almost regal state, boast their descent from the celebrated Salladin."^ Malcolm (vol. 2, p. 231) continues as follows: "To the north of Mushed, along the more mountainous part of Khorassan (which 1 "There are some Arabian tribes in this country; and several of the principal Kurdish chiefs boast a descent from families of that nation." 2 "This is the name which European writers give to S&lSh-ii-deen, the famous enemy of the crusaders. The family of Ardelan trace their lineage to this monarch through female descent; but, in the History of Kurdistan, their title to their possessions rests upon an actual occupation for four centuries, and a succession of twenty-five male heirs." Historical References 45 borders on the country of the Turkomans, who now inhabit the lands of the ancient kingdom of Khaurizm), two Kurdish chiefs, high in the favour and employ of Nadir and his successors, established their tribe." He adds (p. 216): "Khorassan is peopled by many races: its war- like inhabitants boast their descent from Arabian, Kurd, Turkish,^ and Affghan tribes, who came into the province at different periods to subdue or to defend it . . . ." Malcolm (vol. 2, p. 617) states that "the Arabian tribes subject to Persia, who inhabit the shores of the Gulf, are more assimilated, in their habits, to the people from which they are derived, than to those amid whom they dwell. They continue to speak Arabic, and preserve almost all the customs of their original country. They in general dress like the inhabitants of Arabia, wearing, instead of the cap of the Persians, a light turban, and are usually covered with a flowing cloak. The manners of this race, though less rude than those of the other tribes of Persia, retain much of the wildness and independence of their ancestors." He adds (vol. 1, p. 277) that "the progress of the conquerors [inva- sion of the Arabian Caliphs] was rapid and wonderful : colonies, from the burning desert of Arabia, were extended over the cold countries of Khorassan and Bulkh: and they flourished in the soil to which they were transplanted. Their descendants still remain a distinct race,^ and continue to preserve the manner and the appearance, though they have lost the language, of their forefathers." Malcolm (vol. 2, p. 596, footnote) writes that "small encampments of gypsies are frequently met with in Persia, particularly in Ader- bijan. The habits and occupations of the families which we saw in that country appeared very similar to those of the vagrant tribes who wander over England. The Persians call them Karachee; a Turkish term, which may be translated 'the black people'; and 1 "The word Turkish is always used to describe the inhabitants of Turkistan, or Tartary, or those who derive their origin from that country and continue to speak its language." - "I have conversed with a man of the tribe of Ben-Shybanee [Shaibani], who belonged to a branch of that tribe, settled within four days' march of Bokharah: his countenance and manner were as completely Arabian as an inhabitant of Yemen, which he accounted for by saying that none of his tribe intermarried with the other inhabitants of the country. The Arabs, in Khorassan, in Bulkh, and even in the vicinity of Bokharah, are still numerous: but, except in the former province, they have no chiefs of any distinction, it having been the policy of both the Tartars and Affghans to scatter and weaken them. Though many of these tribes have preserved the name and appearance of Arabians, they have completely lost the language of that country." 46 Anthropology of Iran which probably has been given to them from their complexion being darker than that of the natives." 1828. — Frederic Shoberl (p. 20) published some statistical infor- mation regarding the linguistic problems and the population of various groups based on the following philological divisions: "1. The Turkish language is the most numerous: it comprises 41 families or branches, and 428,000 persons. The Afshars and the Cadjars [Qajars] are the most powerful of these tribes. The former are spread over all Persia, but especially in Adherbijan, and amount to about 28,000 souls. The Cadjars dwell in Mazanderan, at Teh- ran, at Meru in Khurasan, at Erivan, and at Guindjeh: their number is estimated at 40,000. Feth AH Shah, the reigning sovereign of Persia, is of this tribe, to which most of the great officers of the empire also belong. "2. The Courd [Kurd] language embraces nine families, and numbers about 79,000 individuals. To this class belonged the celebrated Kerim Khan, whose tribe, the Zends, has been almost exterminated since the tragical end of Lootf Ali; the few survivors being in some measure proscribed by the reigning dynasty, and living concealed, or out of the kingdom. "3. The Louree [Luri] language has six families, and comprises 84,500 persons. The numerous tribes of the Faeelees and Bakh- tiarees form part of it. The latter supply the army with the best infantry, but inhabiting, like the former, a mountainous tract bordering on Turkey and Persia, they live independent of both powers. "4. The Arab language. The tribes of this division are of Arabian extraction. Time, and a long residence in a foreign country, have caused them to lose much of the language of their forefathers; so that they now speak a very corrupt Arabic, mixed with a great number of Persian words. This division comprehends eight families, and 93,500 souls." 18U3. — Prichard (p. 171) writes: "The modern Tajiks or the true Persians, called by the Turks Kyzilbachs [Qizilbashes], are well known as a remarkably handsome people with regular features, long and oval faces, black and well defined eyebrows and black, gazelle- like eyes .... "There are several races inhabiting the countries situated near the borders of Persia who do not belong to the Persians so called, but who are closer to them than to any other great nation of Asia. Historical References 47 I believe that they must be included in the Aryan nation. These are the Afghans, Kurds, Beludjs [Baluchis], Brahuis, Haikans or Armenians, and finally the Ossetians." "The greater part of Persia is occupied by semi-nomadic peoples who wander through the country, living in tents and cultivating the soil with the aid of their slaves and their servants .... A very great part of them is not of the Persian race; some are Turks, others belong to Mongol hordes or Afghans, while some are of uncertain origin. The towns and their surroundings are inhabited by repre- sentatives of the true Persian race, who are called everywhere Tajiks and not Persians. The Tajiks are in truth a well-known people widely spread over the East. They inhabit not only the towns of Persia but also those of Transoxiana and of all the countries subjugated by the Tatar Uzbeks. Some claim that they extend as far as the borders of China or at least as far as Tibet." In 1843 Westergaard' sought confirmation of the statement of Herodotus regarding the fragility of the Persian skulls by visiting a dakhma near Yezd and experimenting on their resistance to blows. He came to the same conclusion as Herodotus, but de Khanikoff (p. 64) disagrees with both authors on this point. 18Jt6. — Layard (p. 7) maintains that the Bindunis, actually one of the less numerous tribes of the Bakhtiaris, are considered as aboriginal and, according to tradition, it is this tribe which came to join the Bakhtiaris, who had emigrated from Syria. The Dinarunis, another Bakhtiari subdivision, came from Isfahan. The Gunduzlu are a Turkish tribe of the Afshar family who became detached under the Sefavids or even earlier; the Janeki garmsir and the Janeki sardsir are also of Turkish origin .... Since neither Istakhri, Ibn Haukal, nor even Yakut . . . mention the Bakhtiaris it is very probable that their immigration took place after the thirteenth century, perhaps even under Tamerlane. 1858. — Retzius (p. 112) noted among the peoples of Asia the existence of two head forms and included in the list of Asiatic doli- chocephals a class formed by Hindus, Aryan Persians, Arabs, and Jews — four groups who were at the same time orthognathous. 1863. — Duhousset (pp. 23-24), who studied a regiment at Sultaniyeh, recorded the following: "The men are medium in stature, very robust, able to endure great fatigue; skin color brown; black, wavy hair; small eyes overshadowed by heavy eyebrows; large, ' "In a letter from Professor Westergaard to the Reverend Dr. Wilson written in 1843 in Jour. As. of Gr. Brit, and Ir., London, 1846, VIII, p. 350." Quoted from de Khanikoff, p. 64. 48 Anthropology of Iran aquiline nose with depressed tip; large square mandible; prominent malars; the expression fierce; and neck thin .... The calvarium pre- sents unusual characters, removing itself completely from the Aryan type by the receding forehead and protruding occiput. The head length of one skull was 180 but only 150 when measured 3 mm. above .... The basal circumference is from 560-570 mm., the diameter between external auditory meati is 320-340 mm., and the head height from the upper border of the auditory meatus is 110 mm." In comparing these figures with those in his Appendix (pp. 127- 140) de Khanikoff (p. 109) states that the Bakhtiari skull is most analogous with those which he assembled under the name Tehranis. He adds that it "is incontestable that these latter represent Iranian skulls well modified by Turkish admixture; we must see the same thing among the Bakhtiari s, only the great vertical diameter, arti- ficial in part, indicates again a strong Semitic influence .... The head length is Iranian in character, the breadth Turkish, and the height Semitic." Omalius d'Halloy (p. 36), says de Khanikoff, attributes the Persian stock to the Aramaic branch and describes their general characteristics in the following words: "The peoples whom we group under the denomination of the Aramaic branch generally possess black hair, dark eyes, a skin color more susceptible to the effects of the sun than that of Europeans, an expressive face, and a medium stature." On the other hand, de Khanikoff points out, Perty (p. 70) places the Persians in the Aryan-Oceanic group with the following physical features: "Head oval, wide forehead, prominent nose, moderately prominent malars, horizontal eyes, often blue, hair blond, brown, or black, and heavy beard." Perty adds (pp. 82-83): "The Persians or Tajiks, as they call themselves, form a population very wide- spread in Asia. They occupy the plateau of Iran right up to the Indus; they are found even in the Turan and in the western part of Central Asia. They have formed colonies in Russia and Siberia." 1866. — From "M^moire sur I'Ethnographie de la Perse" by Nicolas de Khanikoff who led an expedition to Persia in 1858, I have selected and translated the following additional passages based on his own work : "We know that the culminating point of the ancient world, the Himalayas, nourishing the principal rivers which carried life in the direction of the four cardinal points of the continent of Asia, also separate four very different nationalities, the Chinese to the east, the Historical References 49 Turanians to the north, the Indians to the south, and the Persians or Iranians to the west .... We know that the ancient traditions of each of these nations place their cradle in Central Asia and that the community of origin of the Aryans of Iran and the Hindus is a fact accepted by scientists (p. 35). "As final proof of the comparatively late arrival of the true Persians in the west, I must call attention to the fact (p. 43) that there is no mention of them in Genesis (X: 1-31), where there is an ethnographic list of the peoples known to the Hebrews. The only Iranian people mentioned in the Bible are the Medes."^ All de Khanikoff's conclusions proceed from anthropometric studies by Duhousset, whose figures he quotes in detail. Below is a comparative table of head measurements on elements of the Persian population, which I have assembled from pages 59 and 63. People No. Gabrs 3 Hindus 8 Afghans 7 Gilanis and Mazanderanis 5 Kurds 5 Bakhtiaris 4 Semites Turanians In the above table the cephalic indices have been calculated from the means by the writer. De Khanikoff (p. 62) describes the head form of the typical Iranian as follows: "Relatively large cranial capacity, almost one and a half times longer than broad, less high than the Semites but higher than the Turanians, having the frontal bone little developed, the semi-circular temporal lines well separated; finally, the skull is relatively flat from above with a very flattened occiput." De Khanikoff (p. 70) reprinted the following figures from Pruner- Bey to give an idea of the head form of Semitic peoples. G.O.L. G.B. H.H. C.I. circum 198 139 104 70.2 555 196 146 100 74.5 565 189 144 103 76.2 559 183 154 106 84.2 558 182 157 101 86.3 560 181 164 107 90.6 571 175 137 126 78.3 193 153 108 79.3 Head Country People No. Sex G.O.L. G.B. C.I. circum. Africa Arabs 11 M 178.0 135.2 76.0 505.6 Africa Arabs 3 F 176.5 134.0 75.9 499.7 Africa Jews 3 M 175.3 131.6 75.1 486.6 Africa Jews 2 F 170.0 132.0 77.7 473.5 India Semites Etruscans 1 4 M 181.7 134.2 73.9 497.5 and [ . . . . 7 M 188.4 143.0 75.9 529.8 Phoenicians J In the above table the cephalic indices have been calculated from the means by the writer. 1 The close connection between the Medes and the Persians is shown by their constant association (see Daniel v: 28; vi: 8, 12, 15; Esther l: 3, 14, and 19, x: 2, and compare Herodotus 1, 102, 130, etc. Also G. Rawlinson, vol. 2, p. 306, footnote 1). Head G.B. H.H. C.I. circum, 134 126 76.1 495 145 103 84.8 490 150 110 88.8 506 137 146 71.7 528 138 141 83.1 494 145 112(?) 77.1 530 124 140 72.9 480 132 135 72.9 505 133 129 80.1 479 127 117 72.6 491 137 126 78.3 500 50 Anthropology of Iran At the Mus^e d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, de Khanikoff (p. 71) measured ten Arab and Jewish skulls with the following results: No. Individual G.O.L. 1 Marabout Kabyle, Algiers, 1841 ... . 176 2 Jew, before 12th century, Paris 171 3 Jew, before 12th century, Paris 169 4 Arab, Tlemcen, Algeria, No. 223 191 5 Arab, Bone, Algeria, No. 227 168 6 Mozabite [Mozarab?], life cast. No. 265 188 7 Arab, Sahara, No. 241 170 8 Arab, Sahara, 1841, No. 259 181 9 Arab, Blida, Algeria, No. 238 166 10 Arab, Algiers, No. 303 175 Averages 175 In the above table the cephalic indices have been calculated by the writer. De Khanikoff (p. 71) concludes that the Semitic skull in com- parison with the Iranian skull appears to be of less cranial capacity, smaller in length and width, but greater in height. Gliddon, he adds, refers to a skull ^ excavated by Layard from a tell in Babylonia and gives the following measurements: G.O.L. 197; G.B. 137; H.H. 133; C.I. 69.5. Therefore, de Khanikoff (p. 73) states: "1. The cradle of the Iranian race should be to the east of Persia. "2. Up to the present time there exists a characteristic difference between the oriental and occidental populations of the Empire. "3. This difference has been felt for a long time and there exists a trace of it in the most ancient ethnographic documents." After acknowledging the influence of the Persian conquest of Meso- potamia (Iraq) he recapitulates (pp. 74-76) that since the Achae- menid period Persia has been also under the sway of the following peoples: People Years People Years Arameo-Semitic 1500 Persian 425 Greek and Semitic 200 Semitic 400 Greek, Semitic, Turanian 600 Aramean, Turanian 500 Armeno-Georgian 220 With regard to the Tajiks de Khanikoff (p. 77) writes that one of the groups living in the eastern provinces of Persia was generally given this name, which was never used in western Persia, and was 1 "In Types of Mankind, pp. 426-427, after a drawing sent him by J. B. Davis, one of the authors of Crania Britannica .... Gliddon adds that in Morton's large Egyptian collection there are only two skulls of similar dimensions, which are designated as Pelasgians." (De Khanikoff, pp. 71-72.) I Historical References 51 only employed as the designation of a certain class of the population in eastern Khurasan, Seistan, and Herat in Afghanistan; it only became general for everyone of Persian blood on the banks of the Oxus and beyond this river. The westerners . . . use an abridged form. In northwestern Persia they call the aborigines of those countries subjugated by the Turks by the name Tats. Pietro della Valle (tome II, pp. 468, 469, French translation, 1663) seems to have been the first European to mention the Tats. The word Tajik has led to many hypotheses and de Khanikoff (p. 78) notes that the name "is derived from the Persian words tadj or tiare, but it does not occur in ancient texts nor in Achemaenid inscriptions." Some authorities, quoted by de Khanikoff (p. 87), "have tried to see in the Huzvaresh word Tazik, corresponding to Persian word tazi, a synonym of the word tadjik, although there is no reason to confuse the word tadj with all its derivatives, such as tadjik (little crown), tadjar (possessor of a crown), tadjwer (wearer of a crown), less ancient than the words tazi, taz, tazianeh, etc." He adds (p. 90) that "the tadj or crown was to the followers of Zoroaster what the sign of the cross is to Christians and the turban, salleh, to Moslems, that is to say an external mark by which they distinguish themselves from those of other faiths." After saying that Wood believes the Tajiks were Persians, de Khanikoff (pp. 87-88) quotes from this author (p. 259): "But the Tajiks themselves indicate Arabia and the region of Baghdad as the first habitation of their ancestors; and since this opinion is generally widespread, it deserves a certain attention. They say that their name is derived from the word tadj, a head ornament, and that it was given to their fathers because they were suspected of having removed this symbol of royalty from the head of Mohammed. They are, however, too numerous to be the descendants of Arab warriors who invaded this vast portion of Asia in the first century of the Hegira." De Khanikoff (pp. 88-89) comments on this by noting that "during the last twenty-five years of the first century after the Hegira the energetic persecution of the descendants of the Prophet in Mesopotamia by Hujaj forced many Sayijids from Kufa, Bagh- dad, Basra, etc. to seek refuge in Transoxiana .... These refugees mixed with the Tajiks. . . . We know from Masson (vol.1, p. 217), "con- tinues de Khanikoff, "that the Tajiks of Bajor call themselves descen- dants of the heroes of the Keianian epoch." Further (pp. 93-94), according to Mountstuart Elphinstone (chap, xii). Ambassador to 52 Anthropology of Iran Peshawur in 1809, "the Tajiks are not one single nation . . . they are spread in isolated sections over a wide area of Asia .... The seden- tary inhabitants of Persia are also called Tajiks to distinguish them from the Tatar conquerors of this country, as well as to avoid con- fusing them with the nomadic population, who appear to have been of Persian origin. They even occur in Chinese Turkestan ..." [from which point Elphinstone proceeds to a discussion of the Tajiks of Afghanistan]. De Khanikoff (pp. 103-105) himself describes the Tajiks as "tall with black hair and eyes; the head long as among the Persians, but the frontal bone is larger between the semi-circular temporal lines which gives them more oval faces than those of the western Persians. The nose, mouth, and eyes are well defined, but the former is rarely curved; its form is generally straight, far more prominent than among the Mongol races but not as marked as among the central and western Persians .... The hair quantity is similar to that of the Persians and not only is the beard heavy, but often the chest and arms are covered with hair. The Tajik skeleton is much more massive than that of the Persian, which gives the living person a heavier appearance .... The Gabrs, almost identical with the Tajiks, have one peculiarity in that aquiline noses are less rare among them .... The stature range of 1400-1500 is far commoner among the Hindus, Afghans, and central and western Persians than that of 1700 and 1600 recorded by Wood at Wakhan. "Of 14,870 Persians from every district who requested passport visas at the Russian Consulate-General at Tabriz in 1857, more than 75 per cent had black eyes and were medium in stature, i.e. 1300-1500. The skull becomes narrower in a more protuberant frontal region; the oval face is longer, eyes larger and well shaped with longer eyelashes. The ear is smaller, as are the mouth and the feet. Actually, as in the time of Herodotus, hair is very abun- dant among all the peoples of the Iranian race; the hair is black and, in section, usually oval in shape. Albinos are rare in Persia as in Afghanistan. During three expeditions in fifteen years I saw only two or three albinos and Masson, long a resident in Afghanistan, refers to only one woman, shown to him as a curiosity, saying that she must be a Feringhi or European. Such is the general character of the changes undergone by the Persian type which I consider as primitive; but these variations occur little by little. "After the Tajiks and the Gabrs," de Khanikoff (pp. 107-108) continues, "the inhabitants of Khurasan have retained the greatest Historical References 53 number of primitive traits." Smaller in stature than the Tajiks, they are well built and slenderer in body proportions. "At Yezd and Kerman one perceives the influence of the type of the popula- tions of western Persia on the physical characters; the body is slender, eyes almond-shaped, more prominent and aquiline, and the face long and oval in the majority of individuals. To the west of Shiraz and Isfahan the Semitic influence makes itself strongly felt, as always, becoming apparent in the head .... "In general the eyes of the Kurds are black and larger than those of the Afghans; they are squarer than among the western Persians, Tajiks, and Puchtus; but, at the same time, their similarity with these latter is striking." He (p. 108) notes, in addition, a similarity between the Baluchis and the Bakhtiaris. De Khanikoff (p. 110) states that the Nestorians and Chaldeans near Urmia, Salmas, and in the mountains which contain the sources of the Zab River, are "undoubtedly a Semitic people, speaking a dialect of ancient Syriac, modernized by the loss of some grammatical forms and by the admission of a quantity of Persian, Turkish, Arabic, and Kurdish words." De Khanikoff (pp. 111-112) then continues: "The Nestorians and Chaldeans form a single people. This latter name is a modern creation; it has been applied, by Papal order, to that portion of the Nestorian nation converted to Catholi- cism by Jesuit missionaries during the 18th century. The shape of the skull is without question Semitic, especially among the Diz, Jelu, Bosse, Tchoub, and Tiari tribesmen, ^ who are more isolated than the inhabitants of the plains; the Iranian influence is shown by their large eyes, which are well shaped as among the Persians, that is to say the vertical diameter is approximately half the horizontal diameter; but in their separation they resemble the Kurds. Far from being deeply set in the head, as among the majority of Semites, the Nestorian eye is almost level with the frontal plane. The nose is generally straight, fairly prominent but short; the face is oval, but larger than among the western Persians; the neck is long; the ears, hands, and feet are small and delicate. These people are tall in stature, well proportioned, endowed with great muscular force, and tireless walkers. The color of the hair and eyes is usually brown and is less dark than that of the Persians. I have been told that among the mountain peoples blond and red-haired individuals occur. The resemblances between the Nestorians and the Persians have 1 1 suggest that the last three names refer to the Assyrian tribes of Baz, Tkhuma, and Tiyari. For description of the Assyrians see Ezekiel XXXI: 3 et seq. 54 Anthropology of Iran not resulted in a brief space of time . . . but took place before the first Mongol invasion." "To the north of the Kurds and Nestorians (p. 112) live the ancient people called Armenians, who without the least doubt are Iranians . . . but greatly modified by a long contact with Semites and Turks. To establish the Armenian type ... we must go to the people of Astrakhan, refugees from north of the Caspian since the fourteenth century, epoch of their emigration from Ani, in the reign of Abusaid-Khan, last Halakuid king of Persia .... They are of tall stature, well proportioned, but inclined to obesity. The head form is decidedly Iranian and dolichocephalic. The eyes are large and black but much deeper set than among the Persians. The fore- head is low; the nose, almost without exception, is very prominent, very aquiline, and very long. The oval face of the Armenians is still longer than the Persian. The neck is long and lean, but the mouth, hands, ears, and feet are generally large and are not as small as among the Persians." In conclusion de Khanikoff contributes some comments and observations on the peoples of Mazanderan, the Tats, the Afghans, and the Ossetes. The Mazanderanis (pp. 116-117) belong to the "true Persian type, being medium in stature, extremely hirsute, the hair jet black in color, the beard very heavy and often growing on the cheeks to just below the eyes, which are big and black with long lashes and thick eyebrows .... The majority of the noses are aquiline, sharply pointed and narrow rooted; the mouth is small, the teeth very regular and white. Not as strong as the Persians in general, the Mazanderanis are good walkers." The Tats, de Khanikoff (p. 114) says, were probably brought from Azerbaijan under the Sasanians and "they were influenced more than any other members of the Iranian family by Turkish groups, among whom they had lived for about fifteen centuries. They are medium in stature, have round and chubby faces, eyes black and much smaller than the Persians'; the neck is short and thick, the body stocky and inclined to obesity, the hands and feet relatively small; the complexion is swarthy, the hair black and rather heavy, though less so than among the Persians and Tajiks." De Khanikoff (pp. 55-56) states that, while Afghanistan has been subjected to Indian and Persian influences, the Afghans should be placed between the Turkomans and the Mongols since they are not only brachycephalic as the latter but also prognathous. Historical References 55 Finally, de Khanikoff (pp. 113-114) concludes: "Still farther to the north . . . toward the northwest limit of the expansion of the Iranian peoples live the Ossetes^ .... Situated for centuries in direct contact with the Lezghians and endowed with almost identical characters, the Ossetes have shown radical transformations in their features .... The Ossetes established on the plain to the north of the Caucasus appear to retake relatively quickly the Iranian type and it is very noticeable, if this is confirmed later, that in the second generation aquiline noses become rarer among them than among the Ossetes, and that the straight nose of the Tajik reappears among them." "Accustomed as they are during their childhood," remarks de Khanikoff (p. 113), "to brave the most terrible hardships of the high, Alpine regions, they are able to climb with absolute safety the steepest passes .... Without the least doubt the environment which surrounds them has had a considerable influence which has subjugated the primitive Iranian tribe." "Nothing in the Ossetes' external appearance," de Khanikoff (p. 113) points out, "indicates their relationship with the Iranians of the south. They are strong, thickset, heavily built, often blond or red-headed; eyes small, frequently blue; aquiline and pointed nose; ears, hands, and feet of considerable dimensions; nevertheless, they call themselves Iron and their speech bears evident traces of an Iranian origin. Generally medium in height, it is not rare to en- counter among them individuals of great stature with a Herculean strength; temperate for the most part, they can eat and drink to excess with impunity in such quantities as would be fatal to any other people. The men are rarely handsome but their wives are often almost ideal in beauty. They undergo easily all kinds of privations." In the Appendix (pp. 127-140) de Khanikoff contributes valuable comparative data, which I have summarized below. Series of skulls were examined in the following collections: Abbreviation C.S. Hunter Collection, Royal College of Surgeons of England B.M. British Museum N. Netley Hospital, Southampton M.N. Natural History Museum, Paris Bl. Blumenbach Collection, Gottingen P. Museum of the Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg (now Institut Antropologii i Etnografil [lAE], Leningrad) 1 During September, 1934, 1 recorded anthropometric data on 107 male and 50 female North Ossetes in Ordzhonikidze (formerly Vladikavkaz), Ciscaucasia, U.S.S.R. These results will appear in a forthcoming Field Museum publication. 56 Anthropology of Iran De Khanikoff took the following measurements which are here- after listed by number: (1) Head length. (2) Head breadth. (3) Height from foramen magnum to vertex. (4) Maximum horizontal circumference. (5) Longitudinal median arc, measured from the nasal suture to the exterior border of the foramen magnum. (6) Vertical arc, measured from the middle of one auditory meatus to the other, passing over the middle of parietals. (7) The shortest distance in an arc between the semi-circular temporal lines. (8) Height of the frontal arc. These measurements were applied to thirty-seven skulls. Von Baer made similar observations on five Gabr skulls in St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). De Khanikoff (p. 131) included the rich collections of Semite skulls in the Natural History Museum, Paris, represented by Arabs from North Africa as well as Jews of the Middle Ages, rare in European collections. Semites 123^5678 Means of 6 at M.N 175 137 126 500 359 323 104 127 Assyrian in B.M 186 140 137 520 372 322 101 125 Arab C.S. No. 5562 183 141 137 508 367 318 110 120 According to de Khanikoff (p. 132) the Assyrian skull is the one found by Layard in the palace of Ashurbanipal and measured incor- rectly by Gliddon,! who had only a drawing from which to work. Turanians Provenance 123^5 6 78 Turk, Asiatic, C.S. No. 5563 ... 178 150 140 524 367 341 118 138 Turk from Ochakov, Bl 181 141 143 508 364 309.5 102 129 Turk, Bl 163 143.5 155 482 350 344 101 129 Turk deformed (left side+) ... 175 140 153 500 368 352 105 129 Turk from Athens cemetery, Bl. 165 138 143 483 341 326.5 116 118 Kirghiz-Cossack, Bl 170 137 145 506 351 322 99 124 Kirghiz-Cossack, Bl 188 152 145 529 357 329 100 127 "Before giving the measurements of Iranian skulls, I found that no European collection contains an authentic Persian skull until I referred to the five Gabr skulls whose measurements I am going to cite." (p. 132; see table below.) The following tables are quoted from de Khanikoff (pp. 133-139). Gabrs {Measured by von Baer in 1 863 at St. Petersburg) 12 3 A 5 6 7 8 Yezd 189 129 144 524 382 265 104 137 Yezd 177 135.5 147 514 375 345 101 132 Yezd 193 129 140 530 388 345 96 . 5 137 Kerman 184 129 145.5 520 378 350 97.5 116 Kerman 185 126 139 514 377 342 100 115 ' See p. 50, footnote. Historical References 57 In a letter dated October 1, 1863, von Baer wrote: "I took measure- ment No. 2 a little below the auditory meatus. It is not always the greatest distance. In the first skull from Kerman, this distance is considerably larger behind this opening; it is at least 133 mm. . . . The face is more prominent among the Kerman skulls so that they could be called prognathous. Of the Yezd skulls Nos. 1 and 3 are similar but No. 2 is larger, higher, and shorter." \ Hindus {From India) 1 2 C. S. No. 5541 170 129 C. S. No. 5542 165 127 C. S. No. 5543 (eastern) 180 147 C. S. No. 5544 (girl) 163 140 N. No. 223 180 125 Chilliuwalli, N 187 145 N. No. 234 (eastern) 167 125 N. No. 249 (pariah) 179 132 Afghans 1 2 134 137 135 138 140 140 C. S. No. 5540 165 Khilji, N. No. 223 177 Khilji, N. No. 224 175 Khilji, N. No. 225 178 Mullah, N. No. 235 165 N. No. 229 182 139 474 140 466 144 521 136 479 139 490 140 534 145 470 143 500 3 U 143 483 142 500 137 549 140 555 129 480 145 510 5 6 352 312 344 300 382 343 345 320 361 289 395 352 322 340 362 310 5 6 337 316 370 308 351 308 385 320 339 316 370 329 100 120 100 120 99 137 108 118 103 123 103 135 103 120 109 127 108 120 110 127 118 120 110 129 100 122 122 122 Various Groups 12 3 U 5 6 7 8 Baluchi, N. No. 218 184 130 132(?) 510 368 320 112 124 Armenian (aged 67), Bl 176 127 138 507 350 297 100 118 Behar Mohammedan, C.S. No. 5559 187 125 133 510 367 305 102 126 Delhi Mohammedan, C.S. No. 5560 169 130 136 473 349 317 110 120 Means of Racial Groups Semites 181.3 139.3 133.3 509.3 366.0 321.0 105.0 124.0 Turanians .... ... 174.3 143.1 146.3 516.0 356.9 332.0 105.9 127.7 Gabrs ... 185.6 129.7 143.1 520.4 380.0 349.4 99.8 127.4 Hindus* ... 173.9 133.8 140.7 491.7 357.9 333.2 103.7 125.0 Afghans ... 173.7 137.3 139.3 512.8 358.7 316.7 111.3 123.3 *This series includes one female skull. Below, de Khanikoff quotes a table of measurements taken by Duhousset, the means of which have been given previously (p. 49). People Hindus Provenance Age G.O.L. G.B. H.H. C.I. Multan 22 Delhi 40 Multan 20 Lucknow 40 Lahore 35 Peshawar 28 Hyderabad 20 _ Hyderabad 40 195 149 108 76.4 195 140 96 71.8 195 150 102 76.9 203 150 102 73.9 210 144 100 68.6 197 153 94 77.7 179 147 106 82.1 195 136 97 69.7 58 Anthropology of Iran Persians (from interior) People Provenance Age Kabul 35 Kandahar 25 Kandahar 20 Afghans \ Kandahar 26 Kandahar 20 Kandahar 35 Kabul 25 ^ , [Yezd 22 Gabrs yezd 35 i Yezd 30 Amul (Mazanderan) .... 40 Savad Kuh 25 Resht 50 Asterabad 45 Khurramabad 30 f Urmia 70 ^^ , Saujbulagh 31 Kurds \ Kurdistan (Iran) 20 I Saujbulagh 40 [ Sultanabad 20 ( Shustar Bakhtiaris J Bakhtiari ] Zerdkuh [Zardeh Kuh?] . 30 [ Luristan Tehranis / Tehran \ Tehran Guklan 56 Guklan 30 Turks J Turkoman (Khiva) 1 Khoi 50 Khoi 25 Marand 60 G.O.L. G.B. H.H. C.I. 185 191 182 190 185 193 195 200 198 195 176 175 197 183 182 185 193 171 175 188 170 179 180 193 190 200 187 200 192 197 187 194 141 150 98 95 137 107 148 106 137 105 147 104 152 105 136 103 138 100 142 110 152 102 155 110 152 110 151 107 160 109 165 105 156 98 160 103 157 103 150 94 150 110 165 100 165 100 163 110 154 109 164 128 155 101 169 113 152 110 142 116 152 116 145 90 76.2 78.5 75.3 77.9 74.1 76.2 77.9 68.0 69.7 72.8 86.4 86.6 77.1 82.5 87.9 89.2 80.8 93.6 89.7 79.8 88.2 92.2 91.7 84.5 81.1 82.0 82.9 84.5 79.2 72.1 81.3 74.7 In the above table the cephalic indices have been calculated by the writer. Age Statur 24 39 1634 35 1556 24 Means OssETES (Living) 1 2 188 154 178 162 201 155 185 159 3 k 146 576 141 560 135 588 154 570 5 6 390 379 327.5 371 354 374 362 394 129.5 125 121 129 188 157.5 144 573.5 358.4 379.5 126.1 "In general the Ossete has a long head with a flat occiput; the forehead is elevated, and the occipital region is large and flat so that when viewed in profile, the contours of these heads form elongated parallelograms." (De Khanikoff, p. 139.) 1875. — Aberigh-Mackay (p. 16, footnote) describes the Turko- mans as "a nation of Turk race, which, in the 11th and 12th centu- ries, overran Bukharia, northern Asia, and, on the westward of the Caspian Sea, Armenia, S. Georgia, Shirvan, and Daghistan, They lead a nomade life and compose the principal part of the population of these countries, where they are called Tarekameh, Turkmans, and Kizilbashi. To explain the name of Turcomans, the Persians I I Historical References 59 relate that the Turk tribes, at the time of their invasion of Khoras- san, had married the women of the country, and that to their descendants was given the name Turcomans, which means Mike the Turks.' This specious etymology appears very paradoxical, since the hordes of this people who speak Turkish and have remained beyond the Jaihun also call themselves Turcomans. I think the name is rather derived from Turk and Coman, and that it was given to that part of the Coman nation which remained on the east of the Caspian Sea, under the domination of the Turks of the Altai ; while another independent part came and established itself in the vast plains to the westward of that sea, and to the north of the Sea of Azof, and afterwards pushed forward into Hungary. The Uzbeks (so called from one of their Khans) were a mass of tribes of Turki Moghal, and probably of Fennic origin, moulded into one people, but with a great preponderance of Turks. The Uzbeks who now possess Transoxiana, the Turcomans, both on the Oxus and in Asia Minor, the wandering tribes of Northern Persia and the Ottomans or Turks of Constantinople are all Turks, as was the greater part of the army of Tamerlane .... Between the Turcomans and the Uzbeks I see only a difference of tribe and nothing more; the types are similar, the face is flat, large and pointed at the chin; the beard is sandy, or light, thin, and irregular; the head often too small for a body exhibiting considerable development of muscles; the face is pierced with two small holes, the form of which recalls the eyes of a Chinese. There is, however, a striking difference. The Turcomans are nomads, and the Uzbeks are villagers." 1880. — George Rawlinson (vol. 2, p. 307) describes the general physical characters of the ancient Aryan race from the sculptures of the Achaemenian kings in the following words: "a form tall, graceful, and stately; a physiognomy handsome and pleasing, often somewhat resembling the Greek (Dr. Prichard, Nat. Hist, of Man, p. 173, observes of the type in question: 'the outline of the counte- nance is here not strictly Grecian, for it is peculiar; but it is noble and dignified; and if the expression is not full of life and genius, it is intellectual and indicative of reflection. The shape of the head is entirely Indo-European, and has nothing that recalls the Tartar or Mongolian.'); the forehead high and straight, the nose nearly in the same line, long and well formed, sometimes markedly aquiline, the upper lip short, commonly shaded by a moustache, the chin rounded and generally covered with a curly beard. The hair evi- dently grew in great plenty and the race was proud of it ... of the I 60 Anthropology of Iran Median women we have no representations upon the sculptures; but we are informed by Xenophon that they were remarkable for their stature and their beauty (Anab. iii. 2, § 25). In accord with his statement in this place, Xenophon makes the daughter of Cyaxares, whom he marries to Cyrus the Great, an extraordinary beauty (Cyrop. viii. 5, § 28). The same qualities were observable in the women of Persia, as we learn from Plutarch (Vit. Alexand. p. 676, D), Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiv, 14), and others including Quintus Curtius (iii, 11) and Arrian (Exp. Alex, ix, 19 etc.)." Rawlinson observes that "probably the wild Kurd or Lur of the present day more nearly corresponds in physique to the ancient Mede than do the softer inhabitants of the great plateau." 1880. — Some extracts from Surgeon-Major H. W. Bellew's account of the races of Afghanistan which apply to the inhabitants of Iran are herewith included. Bellew (p. 13) writes that "the principal nationalities, which together compose the inhabitants of Afghanistan, are the Afghan, the Pathan, the Ghilzai, the Tajik, and the Hazarah. There are besides the lesser nationalities of the Char Aymac on the western frontiers about Herat, the Uzbak on the southern bank of the Oxus, and the Kafir on the southern slopes of Hindu Kush." He continues (pp. 15-16) that "the traditions of this people [the Afghans] refer them to Syria as the country of their residence at the time they were carried away into captivity by Bukhtunasar (Nebuchadnezzar), and planted as colonists in different parts of Persia and Media. From these positions thej'', at some subsequent period, emigrated eastward into the mountainous country of Ghor, where they were called by the neighboring peoples 'Bani Afghan' and 'Bani Israil,' or children of Afghan and children of Israel. In corroboration of this we have the testimony of the prophet Esdras to the effect that the ten tribes of Israel, who were carried into captivity, subsequently escaped and found refuge in the country of Arsareth, which is supposed to be identical with the Hazarah country of the present day, and of which Ghor forms a part. It is also stated in the Tabacati Nasiri — a historical work which contains, among other information, a detailed account of the conquest of this country by Changhiz Khan — that in the time of the native Shansabi dynasty there was a people called Bani Israil living in that country, and that some of them were extensively engaged in trade with the countries around." Historical References 61 Bellew, discussing some of the tribal groups which have had physical and cultural contacts with Iran, contributes the following notes on the Hazara, Tajiks, Tui'komans, Khilji, and the peoples of Seistan: "This people [the Hazara]," writes Bellew (pp. 113-114), "differ entirely from all the other races of Afghanistan, and occupy a very extensive area of country, extending from the borders of Kabul and Ghazni to those of Herat in one direction, and from the vicinity of Kandahar to that of Balkh in the other. They hold, in fact, all the country which formed the Paropamisus of the ancients, and in their possession of it are isolated from all the other peoples of Afghanistan, with whom they are in contact only where their borders march together .... Regarding the ethnic affiliation of the Hazarah people there can be no doubt, their features and forms declaring them distinctly to be Tatar of the Mongol division. But little or nothing appears to be known for certain regarding their history and settlement in these parts, and they seem to have no traditions on the subject themselves. The name too by which they are now known affords no clue, as it is not a native one, but of foreign deriva- tion. The general idea regarding the origin of the word Hazarah is that it is derived from the Persian word hazar, 'a thousand,' and was supplied to these people by their neighbours, in consequence of their having been planted here as military colonists in detachments of a thousand fighting men each by Changhiz Khan in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. It is said that Changhiz Khan left ten such detachments here, nine of them in the Hazarah of Kabul, and the tenth in the Hazarah of Pakli to the east of the Indus." "The Tajik," Bellew (pp. 109-110) states, "or, as he is frequently called, the Parsiwan, constitute a numerous and widely spread portion of the inhabitants of Afghanistan, from whom they differ in language, internal government, and manners and customs. They are the representatives of the ancient Persian inhabitants of the country, as the Afghans are of its ancient Indian inhabitants. It would appear that as the Afghans (whose true home and seat are in the Kandahar and Arghandab valleys) mixed and intermarried with the Indian people whom they conquered, and gave their name to the mixed race, so the Arabs, who did the same with the Persian people whom they conquered, left their name as the national desig- nation of their mixed posterity — that is, the name by which they were called by the Persians .... The term Tajik, it is said, is 62 Anthropology of Iran derived from the ancient Persian name for the Arab, the ancient Persian writers distinguishing their hereditary enemies on the north and south respectively by the terms Turk and Taz or Taj. And hence it is that the term Taz appHed to the Arab only in Persia; and everything connected with him, or proceeding from him, was called by the Persians Tazi or Tazik, which are the same as Taji or Tajik. In course of time, it seems these terms became restricted to designate things of Arab origin in Persia in contradistinction to the pure and native article. Thus an Arab settling in the country, and not intermarrying with its people, retained his proper national title through successive generations. But the Arab intermarrying with the people of the country lost his proper nationality, and, in the succeeding generations, was called Tajik by the Persians. An im- ported Arab horse or dog, etc., was not called Tazi but Arabi. Their offspring, however, from a Persian mare or bitch received the name of Tazi, and were no longer called Arabi. By some, however, the term is said to signify 'Persian,' and there is also reason to believe that the Taochi of the Chinese is the same word as the modern Tajik. If so, and this latter appears to be the correct version, the former explanation must be rejected, and Tajik be held to be merely the ancient name for the Persian cultivator or peasant. The word, in fact, being a Persian one, is restricted to the territories which formerly owned the Persian sovereignty. Hence its absence from India, and its presence in Turkistan. The Tajik extend all over the plain country of Afghanistan from Herat to the Khybar and from Kanda- har to the Oxus, and even into Kashgar. The name is applied nowadays in a very loose way, and is made to include all the Persian- speaking people of the country who are not either Hazarah, Afghan, or Sayyid. Thus the Indian races on the southern slopes of Hindu Kush, who have been converted to Muhammadanism and speak Persian (as well as to some extent their native dialects), are com- monly called Tajik. The term is also applied to the representatives of the ancient Persian inhabitants of Badakhshan and its inaccessible mountain glens." Bellew (pp. 17-18) cannot decide at what period the Afghans of Ghor moved forward and settled in the Kandahar country, which is now their home. "It appears, however, from the writings of the early Muhammadan historians, that in the first century of their era — the seventh-eighth of ours- — the province of Sistan was occupied by an Indian people. At that time the territorial extent of Sistan was very much wider than the restricted little province of the present Historical References 63 day. At that time Sistan, or Sajistan as it is written in native books, comprised all the country from the head waters of the Tarnak and Arghasan rivers and the Toba range of hills on the east, to the Nih Bandan range of hills and Dashti Naummed — Desert of Despair — on the west; from the valleys of the Helmand and Arghandab rivers on the north, to the Khoja Amran range and the Balochistan desert on the south. It comprised, in fact, the Drangiana and Arachosia of the Greek writers. The former was afterwards called Sijistan after the Saka Scythians, who occupied it about the first centm-y of our era, and the latter was called Gandhar after the Indian Gandhara, who, it seems, overpowered a kindred people in prior possession some time after the Greek conquest. "Who the Indian people occupying this country at the time of this Arab invasion were will be mentioned presently, but it seems clear they were not the only inhabitants thereof, but shared it with the native Persian and other immigrant tribes of Scythic origin. For the province itself derived its name of Sakistan, Sagistan, Sajistan, Sistan from the Saka, who were probably the same people as the Saka Hamuvarga mentioned in the tables of Darius (see Rawlinson's Herodotus)— Saka dwellers on the Hamu, which has from the earliest times been the name of the lower course of the Oxus river .... "It is probable that, in the course of the repeated military expe- ditions carried by the Arabs from the side of Persia against Sind, a variety of new races were brought into the country forming the southern part of the present Afghanistan, and that extensive changes occurred in the previously existing local distribution of the inhabitants." Bellew (p. 100) maintains that "the word Khilich means a 'sword,' and Khilichi, a 'swordsman,' just as, according to the Turk custom of naming their tribes after some individual peculiarity or charac- teristic — Cazzac or Cossack means a robber; Kirghiz or Cirghiz, a wanderer; Uzbak, an independent; Cara Calpac, a black hat; Kizil- bash, red head, etc. The Khilichi, when they entered Ghor, prob- ably consisted only of the true Turk clans of Hotak, Tokhi, Andar, Taraki, Tolar, and Polar (the last two of which are lost in the Afghan reckoning), and made good their settlement there by force of arms amongst a mixed population of Jews, Israelites, Afghans, Indians, and Persians." Bellew (p. 97) notes that the "Ghiljai (plural Ghilji) as he calls himself — Ghilzai, as strangers call him — is a numerous and wide- 64 Anthropology of Iran spread people, extending from Jalalabad in the east to Kalati Ghilji in the west, and occupying the adjoining slopes and spurs of Sufed Koh, Suleman Koh, and Gul Koh (west of Ghazni)." "At the beginning of the last century," states Bellew (p. 28), "Afghanistan, at that time known as Khurasan (a Persian word signifying the East or the Levant of the Persians) was divided pretty equally between the Mughal and the Persian Empires — that is to say, Kabul and Ghazni pertained to the former, and Herat and Kandahar to the latter." 1887. — During an eighteen-month sojourn in Persia Houssay (pp. 101-148) obtained important anthropometric data. Passing two winters at Susa and the intervening summer along the road from Susa to Tehran via Shiraz, he had an opportunity to observe the peoples and divided them into the following groups: (1) Aryans: Farsis, Lurs. (2) Mongols: Turkomans, Azerbaijanis. (3) Mongolo- Aryans: Armenians, Ajemis, Tajiks, Hats. (4) Mongolo-Semites: Bakhtiaris. (5) Semites: Arabs, Seides, Jews. (6) Aryo-Negroids : modern Susians. The Gabrs (Zoroastrians), a religious group, he adds, are a racial mixture, composed mainly of Tajiks and Ajemis (p. 103). Aryans {Measurements of five adult male Lurs) 1 2 3 Jf 5 Mean Stature 1750 1700 1670 1570 1710 1680 Head length 190 190 197 200 188 193 Head breadth 140 150 147 140 135 142 Cephalic index 73.7 78.9 74.6 70.0 71.8 73.6 Nasal height 55 55 63 54 60 57 Nasal breadth 40 36 35 40 40 38 Nasal index 72.7 65.5 55.6 74.1 66.7 66.7 In the above table (Houssay, p. Ill) the cephalic and nasal in- dices have been calculated by the writer. Comparative Data (p. 110) People C.I. Observer Lurs (5) 73.57 Houssay Afghans 76. 19 Duhousset Hindus 74.48 Duhousset Hindus 72.28 Quatrefages Afghans 73 . 15 Quatrefages Persians 84 . 61 Ujfalvy Tajiks 82.31 Ujfalvy Mongols 85.4 Tchudis 84.0 Kalmucks 83.8 y s ^ "Tehran .■""\ < ■Hamadan ^ I ^ \ <^- ■. ^ ^ \ <^ \ ^ ^ « '^ TAJIKS ,''''-V^\ ■ Isfahan Fig. 5. Ethnographic map of Persia (after Houssay). \ 65 66 Anthropology of Iran Mongols In Mazanderan and Gilan, Houssay continues, dwell the pure Turkoman tribes. From Qum to a line between Isfahan and Abadeh is the territory of Iraq Ajemi, inhabited by a mixed population of Turkomans and Medo-Persian Aryans, who call themselves Ajemis. People C.l. Observer Turkomans 82.00 De Khanikoflf Mazanderanis (4) 86.31 Duhousset Guklans (2) 81 .45 Duhousset MoNGOLO- Aryans 1. Ajemis. — This group includes the greater portion of the population of Iran. Since it extends from Tehran to Deh Bid and from Luristan to Khurasan, the peoples of Tehran, Isfahan, Qum, and Qumisheh (now Shahreza) belong to this subdivision. People C.I. Observer Ajemis 84 . 61 Duhousset Ajemis (2 Tehran) 81 .54 Duhousset At Qum (p. 115) a number of the inhabitants have a vertical flattening of the frontal bone. The physical characteristics are delicate. The hair is thick and glossy, similar to that of the Turan- ians.^ They cut their hair and generally shave the face with the exception of the mustache. The nose is neither large and long as among the Lurs, nor aquiline as among the Farsis, nor flat and short as in Mongols, but is small and delicate. BuRUJiRD Males (p. 117) No. Stature G.O.L. G.B. C.I. N.H. N.B. N.I. 1 156 180 140 77.8 57 37 64.9 2 167 190 140 73.7 59 39 66.1 In the above table the cephalic and nasal indices have been calculated by the writer. 2. Tajiks. — They live on the eastern frontier of Iran in Khurasan and between Afghanistan and Fars. In general physique they re- semble the Ajemis. 3. Hats. — According to Polak, "Persien und seine Bewohner," the word Hat was applied to all nomads. Houssay (p. 119) dis- agrees on this point of nomenclature by adding that a Lur, a Bakh- tiari, or an Arab would never use this term. In summer the Hats move northward toward Isfahan and during the winter they live between southern Fars and the Persian Gulf. Some are Turks and ' Houssay (p. 119) quotes Ujfalvy as giving a cephalic index of 82.31 for the Ajemis at Issikul (Issiq Kol) or Aphrosiab (in northeastern part of Kirgiz, A. S. S. R.), and states that the Ajemis to the north are more Turanian, while those in the south are more Aryan. Historical References 67 some are Arabs, and a tribe may consist of a few tents or of several thousand families. He adds that they appear to be of Arab origin but that they are now well intermingled with the Farsis. If.. Armenians. — At Julfa, which adjoins Isfahan, Houssay (p. 120) observed some Armenians, the descendants of those brought there in 1605 by Shah Abbas I. He states that in comparison with the Ajemis the head is shorter; the zygomatic arches are more de- veloped; the thorax is strong and thick-set; the nose is short and prominent. The cephalic index, according to Chantre (1883, p. 45), varies from 84 to 86, which makes them as brachycephalic as the pure Turkomans. M ongolo-Semites The Bakhtiari tribes inhabit the mountainous region between the Lurs and the Farsis. According to Houssay, Duhousset (p. 24), infers that all Bakhtiaris are the result of the fusion of the Turanian Scythians with the Semites of Babel-Assur. Duhousset "character- izes them, above all, besides their brachycephaly, by the shape of the occiput, which falls vertically into the nuchal projection. 'I have ascertained this general form of the skull of the Bakhtiaris from those individuals who constituted an entire regiment in camp at Sultaniyeh where 20,000 men were assembled under my com- manding officer in 1859.' " Houssay (p. 121) comments: "This flattening is without doubt due to an artificial deformation produced during childhood, although I have not been able to see this for myself. Whatever it may be, the author [Duhousset] considers it as tj^Dical and says, 'None of the great racial stocks of Central Asia offers a similar conformation.' It suffices, however, to compare the drawings which he gives of the Bakhtiaris, Turkomans, and Azerbaijanis in order to recognize that the last possess almost as much as the first. This would then be instead a Mongoloid character; elsewhere, in Central Asia and Syria, it is caused by artificial deformation." Houssay (p. 122) suggests that the Bakhtiaris are not a single group and quotes Layard, who agrees that the different tribes did not have the same origin. According to Layard the Bindunis are aborigines mixed with Syrians. The Dinarunis came from Isfahan to Malamir about 1830. The Gunduzlus are Turk Afshars and the Janekis who live between Malamir and Ram Hormuz are also Turks. "This region," Houssay (pp. 122-126) continues, "probably con- tains other elements .... The mountain chain, which has been the enforced retreat of the scattered tribes, has been the theatre of 68 Anthropology of Iran numerous Aryan, Turanian, and Semitic fusions. The Turanian element appears in certain places to be preponderant, in others it disappears. "We spent twelve days with the Bakhtiaris, but the lack of confidence which we inspired, the bad reception which was given us, and the quarrels which shattered each day did not allow me to take as many measurements as I should have liked. At Meidowid a tribe of Janekis showed themselves less savage, so I profited im- mediately by this and obtained the following measurements:" No. Stature G.O.L. G.B. C.I. N.H. N.B. N.I. 1 170 185 160 86.5 65 42 64.6 2 175 172 145 84.3 70 43 61.4 3 170 177 142 80.2 60 32 53.3 In this table the cephalic and .nasal indices have been calculated by the writer. These figures, Houssay (p. 122) points out, apply only to the Janekis and not to the entire Bakhtiari group. "The men of this tribe, whom Layard said were Turk, present on the contrary at first sight the physical characteristics of Lurs; the same high stature; general muscular strength; beard and hair silky and curly, very long and very black; the nose long and straight; the skin is remarkably light in color, particularly in view of the fact that they inhabit a relatively hot part of the mountains. "The anthropometric figures, however, indicate a strong Turko- man element. The average cephalic index is 83.7. Although very much lower than that usually given to the Bakhtiaris, it is relatively high. The jugofrontal index of 74.5 is also high. "This tribe differs considerably then from other Bakhtiaris by a lesser degree of brachycephaly and by a greater number of Aryan characters. "It is extremely probable that a Turkish tribe found a country occupied by Lurs and intermingled with them. . . . The first subject measured was the Sheikh of the encampment. He showed more than the others a western origin, as his cephalic index was 86.48. Among the men of the tribe ... I noticed many auburn haired people, as there are in Fars. Others had black hair and beards and blue eyes, a character which I had already noticed among the Lurs. "Another fact confirms the hypothesis of an Aryan occupation of the country. One day's march from Meidowid ... at the point where this river flows out of the mountain gorges into the Ram Hormuz plain, we found a small tribe which could not possibly Historical References 69 have had any relationship with the Farsis or the Lurs. The in- dividuals in this encampment did not even possess tents .... They were very handsome, tall, slender, very white-skinned, auburn or blond of hair. Nothing in their general appearance indicated a Turkoman admixture. "They no longer speak Persian and we were unable to understand a word of their language. By careful attention, however, one could distinguish in their discussion Persian forms, particularly in the verbal roots. Was this Pahlevi? Perhaps this small and miserable tribe, existing in a remote corner and not taking part in the general movement, had retained with their racial purity the ancient form of the language? This was indeed possible. "These few observations do not add much to our knowledge of the Bakhtiaris in general, with the exception that they show that the question is more complicated than is generally supposed. It will be necessary to visit encampment after encampment and explore one by one the more solitary valleys of the mountains. One should be able to find pure tribes of Turkomans, perhaps Semites, Aryans, Susians, and others formed of a mixture of elements in diverse proportions. Such an expedition would be difficult and perilous, but should provide for the anthropologist and historian results of high interest." Aryo-Negroids Ancient Susians. — According to Quatrefages and Hamy (Crania ethnica, pp. 152, 166, quoted from Houssay,p. 126) "the Negroid type which occurs at Kiiyiinjik represents the primitive element of Susiana, whose inhabitants are probably a mixture of Kuchite and Negro. The nose is relatively flat with dilated nares, the malars prominent, the lips thick, conforming to a well-known type. There may be a rela- tionship with the Hubbashee (Habbashi) of Makran and Laristan recorded by Hamilton Smith. Is this the same people who introduced the prototype of the Negro Buddhas of India?" Modern Susians. — Houssay (p. 127) continues that the modern Susians are distinct from all other Persian types. In Dizful Houssay (pp. 129-132) measured eleven men (Nos. 1-11), a Bakhtiari mulatto whose father was from Shushtar and whose mother was born on the east coast of Africa (A), and two children, a girl (B) and a boy (C). In the following table the cephalic and nasal indices have been cal- culated by the writer. The nasal height of No. 7, apparently incor- rect, affects the mean. The mean cephalic index of 78.35, calculated by Houssay, was derived from the means of the two measurements. Fig. 6. Physical characters of Lur, Bakhtiari, and Susian. a, Mandible of Susian Negrito; b, Lur; c, Bakhtiari; d, Susian; e, Susian Persians: I, stature, II, cephalic index; /, Susian Negritos: I, stature, II, cephalic index. The base line in both diagrams represents 140 cm. for stature or 76.0 for cephalic index. (After Houssay, Plate IV.) 70 I Historical References 71 No. Stature G.O.L, G.B. C.I. N.H. N.B. N.I. 1 1710 180 160 88.9 50 40 80.0 2 1670 170 130 76.5 56 40 71.4 3 1740 180 130 72.2 60 40 66.6 4 1630 182 136 74.7 55 36- 65.5 5 1650 185 132 71.4 50 40 80.0 6 1720 186 150 80.6 50 39 78.0 7 1570 178 145 82.6 26 37 142.3 8 1400 178 149 83.7 41 41 100.0 9 1620 182 147 80.8 60 35 58.3 10 1570 184 135 73.4 48 35 72.9 11 1680 196 145 74.0 62 37 59.7 Means 1633 182 143 78.6 50 40 80.0 A 1580 205 160 78.0 47 43 91.5 B 1170 170 130 76.5 40 35 87.5 C 1390 180 125 69.4 45 35 77.8 To the statistical data Houssay (page 133) adds these physical characteristics: forehead narrow and low; eyes large and gentle and often afflicted with disease; nose short, large and fleshy. To visualize the differences in nasal form and index the following comparisons can be made: People N.L. N.B. N.I. Susians 50 40 80.0 Bakhtiaris (Janekis) 65 39 60.0 Ajemis 57 38 66.7 Lurs 57 38 66.7 In the above table the nasal indices have been calculated by the writer. The Susians have the shortest and broadest noses in Iran. The children show marked Negroid characters. Finally Houssay (pp. 136-137) summarizes the evidence for the theory that Negrito populations once occupied Susiana. "The first thought must be toward the Persian Aryans, who in the Achemaenid period, dominated and inhabited Susiana; then toward the Mongols, Parthians, or Bakhtiaris of the neighboring mountains. The Negritos are small Negro brachycephals whose cephalic index is . . . about 80. The Persians had the cephalic index of other Aryans: Hindus, Afghans, and Lurs, which was 73. As for the Parthians, they belong to the Ural-Altaic populations whose cephalic index varies from 80 to 84 ... . The mean of these three indices, 80, 73, and 82, is 78.33, which is almost identical with the peoples of Susiana, namely 78.35 .... "In the table [top of page] Nos. 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10 have a mean stature of 155.8; the skull is smaller and the cephalic index 78.76 approaches that of the Negritos, although the head may be lengthened by Aryan influence. Among the taller individuals in 72 Anthropology of Iran the group are Nos. 1 and 6, who present Turanian characters. Their stature is 171.5 and the cephalic index 84.63. "As for the others (Nos. 2, 3, 5, 11) their mean stature is 168.5 and their cephalic index 73.22, in fact dolichocephals who perpetuate the characters of the Persian element of the population." Thus the conclusions from a study of stature can be added to the preceding deductions. "There is in Susiana a clearly defined race formed by a mixture of Turanians, Persians, and Negritos. The physical characters of these three peoples have been blended to form an average type," out of which may appear one of these three dis- tinctive traits. When stature and cephalic indices are arranged in the following table, Houssay (pp. 137-138) remarks that they show no direct correspondence : Stature 1400 1570 1570* 1620 1630 C.I 83.70 81.46 73.37 80.76 74.72 Stature 1650 1670 1680 1710 1720 1740 C.I 71.35 76.47 73.97 88.88 80.64 72.22 *The cephalic index of this individual has been changed to 73.37 from 73.26 since Houssay's measurements (p. 130) show the latter to be incorrect. This, he explains, results because the Susians are a mixture of three different elements. By selecting the individuals whose average cephalic index is approximately 80 and arranging them by stature Houssay (p. 138) makes up a group of Susian-Negritos. Stature 1400 1570 1620 1670 1720 C.I 83.70 81.46 80.76 76.47 80.64 "This time there is a positive concordance between the two criteria," states Houssay. ^ The Persian section of the Susiana population, he continues, has a cephalic index of about 73. These individuals can also be arranged by stature and cephalic index as follows: Stature 1570 1630 1650 1680 1740 C.I 73.37 74.72 71.35 73.97 72.22 Thus among eleven individuals five have Persian characteristics and five Negrito, while the Turanian influence is shown by one very brachycephalic subject and by raising slightly the horizontal index of the Negrito part of the population. ' In this table, however, I have transposed two cephalic indices to conform to the previous table since here was obviously a misprint, despite the fact that the published figure makes the theory more plausible. Historical References 73 Five supposedly Parthian skulls, Houssay (pp. 140-143) con- tinues, were excavated at Susa. These included three adults and two infants. Skull No. 1. — The cephalic index, 77.19, is not pure Negrito. The following skull characters are very typical: (a) Pentagonal in Fig. 7. Armenian type of cradle (after Bishop). outline. (6) The middle of the temporal fossa is marked by a depression which continues to the median line, thereby giving a bilobate aspect. These two characters indicate Negrito admixture. Houssay (p. 142) adds that this Parthian-Negrito skull resembles closely a Negrito-Japanese skull in Quatrefages and Hamy (Crania ethnica, Plate XVI). 74 Anthropology of Iran Skull No. 2. — Larger than No. 1 but very incomplete. It is that of an aged male. Oval in form, combined with the basi-bregmatic height and a cephalic index of 74.17, its characters suggest a Persian skull. Skull No. 3. — A young individual with a cephalic index of 77.93. The poor condition renders other measurements impossible, but the skull bears traces of a basilo-bregmatic deformation. This artificial cranial deformation applied in the cradle still exists in the Caucasus, in Syria, and among the Bakhtiaris. Houssay (p. 143) suggests that this custom is Turanian in origin. The deformation on this skull could very well be considered as a custom brought from Turan by the Parthians. Skulls from Susa I II III Head length 171 182 145 Head breadth 132 135 113 Cephalic index 77.2 74.2 77.9 Cranial capacity 1226 .... .... In the above table the cephalic indices have been calculated by the writer. Houssay concludes that Susiana was formerly occupied by a black population, ancestors of those Negroes of India who were forced by the white people to seek refuge in these inaccessible, mountainous regions. These Negi'oes were Negritos. With regard to the geographical distribution of the Susians, they extended from the Persian Gulf to the foot of the mountain chain. Their center was Dizful, located about twenty miles from Susa (Shush). 1889. — Conder (pp. 30-51) attempts to define the racial and linguistic elements present among the early races of western Asia. The Turanian family of Central Asiatic agglutinative tongues in- cludes "the Turkic dialects, the Mongolian language, the various Finnic tongues, and, as recent researches show, the language of the ruling Tatar race in China." The physical features of a Kirghiz Tatar, an Uzbek Tatar, two "Akkadians," a Hittite chief, a Cappadocian, and an Etruscan man and woman are compared (JAI, vol. 19, Plate I). 1891. — Isabella L. Bishop, who gives a delightful picture of her travels through Persia and Kurdistan, describes (vol. 1, p. 316) the Bakhtiaris in the following words: "Whatever beauty these women possessed was in the Meg Merrilees style, with a certain weirdness Historical References 75 about it. They had large, dark, long eyes, with well-marked eye- brows, artificially prolonged, straight prominent noses, wide mouths with thin lips, long straight chins, and masses of black hair falling on each side of the face." She says elsewhere (vol. 1, pp. 38-39) : "Though some of the Arme- nian girls are beautiful, every one has one or more flattish depressions on her face — scars in fact — the size of a large date stone. Nearly the whole population is thus disfigured. So universal is it among the fair- skinned Armenian girls, that so far from being regarded as a blem- ish, it is viewed as a token of good health, and it is said that a young man would hesitate to ask for the hand of a girl in marriage if she had not a 'date mark' on her face. "These 'date boils,' or 'Baghdad boils,' as they are sometimes called, are not slow in attacking European strangers, and few, if any, escape during their residence here. As no cause can reasonably be assigned for them, so no cure has been found. Various remedies, including cauterisation, have been tried, but without success, and it is now thought wisest to do nothing more than keep them dry and clean, and let them run their natural course, which lasts about a year. Happily they are not so painful as ordinary boils. The malady appears at first as a white point, not larger than a pin's head, and remains thus for about three months. Then the flesh swells, becomes red and hard and suppurates, and underneath a rough crust which is formed is corroded and eaten away as by vitriol. On some strangers the fatal point appears within a few days of their arrival." (Cf. Schlimmer, pp. 81-92; and Mense.) 1892. — From G. N. Curzon's two significant volumes on Persia a pertinent selection of material has herewith been incorporated. In general the data have been treated from a geographical aspect, begin- ning primarily with his observations and statistical information con- cerning the population, continuing with extracts on the areas in the northwest, west, southwest, south, southeast, northeast, and north, successively. His comments on the Jews have been relegated to pp. 289-290. Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 492-494) introduces his figures on the general population with the statement: "Neither the assessment for taxation . . . nor the military conscription list, affords a basis of calculation, which must therefore be in every case more or less a matter of guesswork. The two most recent estimates that I have seen differ as widely in their totals as do any of their predecessors. One of these was drawn up by General Schindler — than whom no 76 Anthropology of Iran man is better qualified to pronounce, from his wide acquaintance with the whole country — in 1884." Sq. mi. Approximate area of Persia 628,000* Families Souls Towns (99) containing 363,630 1,963,800 Villages and districts without towns 3,780,000 Nomads Arabs 52,020 Turks 144,000 Kurds and Leks 135,000 Beluchis and gipsies 4,140 Bakhtiaris and Lurs 46,800 Total 381,960 1,909,800 Total population of Persia 7,653,600 ♦Other estimates (1892a, vol. 2) are 610,000, 636,000, and 660,000 square miles. This total Curzon again subdivided, according to creeds: Shiahs 6,860,600 Sunnis and other Mohammedan sects 700,000 Parsis 8,000 Jews 19,000 Armenians 43,000 Nestorians and Chaldaeans 23,000 Total 7,653,600 "The above figures are clearly conjectural in many respects, my own experiences having convinced me that the populations of several of the towns, in General Schindler's table, ^ are as much in excess of the real totals as some of the items in the second of the above tables, e.g. the figures of Jews, Nestorians, and Chaldaeans, are below. If, however, we accept his grand total as the most available approximation to the truth, and add thereto a % per cent, annual increase for each of the succeeding years, which have been free both from war and famine, we shall arrive at the following, as the total of population in 1891, viz., 8,055,500. "On the other hand, M. Zolotaref published a much lower estimate in the Proceedings of the Russian Geographical Society in 1888 (No. 2, p. 120). He calculated the whole population as follows: Persians 3,000,000 Arabs 300,000 Turks and Tartars 1,000,000 Turkomans, Jamshidis, etc. . . 320,000 Lurs 780,000 Kurds 600,000 Total 6,000,000 "These figures differ so widely from General Schindler's, both in total and in composition, as to give some idea of the precarious 1 Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 493) quoted this "Commercial Reports of the Foreign Office," No. 7, 1885. Historical References 77 character of the data upon which any computation reposes. My own impression, which I hazard diffidently, not having visited some of the most populous quarters of the country, is that General Schind- ler's estimate errs modestly, and M. Zolotaref's ludicrously, on the side of depreciation. The recognised highways, which are traversed by the ordinary traveller, connect the principal cities, but they do not lead through the most fertile districts; and, owing to the terror inspired by the passage of armies, and even by the pacific progress of the monarch, or of provincial governors going to and from their posts, have repelled rather than attracted population. In civilized countries the reverse is the case, and the main thoroughfares lead through the most populous districts." Breaking up this population into its elements, Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 269-270) states: "Roughly speaking, the tribes of Persia^ are susceptible of a fourfold classification — Turks (i.e. offshoots of the great Turki or Turkoman or Tartar stock, not to be confused with the Osmanli branch of the same root) ; Arabs, Beluchis, and a great nameless class, sometimes described as Leks, by those who defend their common Iranian origin, more commonly known by the names of their various constituent elements, the principal of which are the Kurds and Lurs, with the Feilis, Bakhtiaris, Mamasennis, etc., as sub-divisions of the latter title. In a greater or less degree all these tribes contain a settled population, which in the case of the Turks constitutes an enormously preponderant majority, in that of the Arabs and Beluchis a decided majority, in that of the Kurds and Lurs a decided minority. The settled peoples are known as shehr-nishins or deh-nishins, i.e. dwellers in cities or villages; the nomads as sahra-nishins, i.e. dwellers in the open country. All nomads may further be grouped under the designation Iliat, a Turkish word, which is the plural of II, a family or clan. Of the entire population of Persia it has been assumed that one quarter, or over 2,000,000, are in the nomadic state." Concerning this people, Curzon adds in a footnote: "It is impossible to arrive at any scientific estimate of the numbers of the nomad population. No census or register of births is kept; the scale of military contri- bution affords no clue; and an approximate calculation is only 1 Of the few existing accounts of the tribes of Persia, Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 269) cites only "the following as in the least satisfactory: Sir J. Malcolm (1800- 10), History, vol. ii. cap. xxiii; M. Jouannin in Dupre's Voyage en Perse, (1808); J. P. Morier (1814-15), Journal of the R.G.S., vol. vii, pp. 230-42; C. Ritter (1838-40), Die Erdkunde von Asien, vol. vi; Sir J. Shell (1840-50), Note to Lady Shell's Glimpses of Life; Comte J. de Rochechouart (1865), Souvenirs, cap. iv; and F. Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, vol. i. Ritter's is the most compre- hensive account, and corresponds more nearly than the others to the status quo." 78 Anthropology of Iran arrived at by taking the number of the families, which are roughly ascertained for revenue purposes by the chiefs. Equally difficult is it to explore their past history. The nomad tribes appear never to have developed a folk-lore, or produced a book, or harboured an historian. Such historical details as are contained in this chapter have been laboriously gleaned from a wide variety of sources, partly written, partly oral." Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 270) continues: "Among the Turkish tribes of Persia, which are most numerous in the north and north- west, the best known are the Kajars (the tribe of the Shah), the Afshars (the tribe of Nadir Shah), the Karaguzlus of Hamadan, the Shah Sevens of Ardebil (supplying the Royal Bodyguard), the Turkomans of the Gurgan and Atrek valleys, and the Kashkai hordes of Pars and Laristan. Of these the last three contain the only remaining nomad elements, changing their pastures according to the season of the year." In a discussion of geographical areas in particular, we cite first Curzon's information (1892a, vol. 1, pp. 549-551) on northwestern Persia and its inhabitants: "Kurdistan^ ... is no more than a convenient geographical expression for the entire country, estimated at over 50,000 square miles, that is inhabited by the Kurds. This region has no natural or political boundaries; it includes both Turkish and Persian territory, and it contains many other elements, Turkish, Persian, Chaldaean, and Armenian, in the population as well. It may be said to extend from Turkish Armenia on the north, to the plains of the middle Tigris and the Luristan mountains on the south, and through the greater part of this length to overlap the Persian border. "The origin and ancestry of the Kurds is too large, and, I may add, too uncertain a question to be debated at length here. Whether they are of Iranian or of Turanian origin, whether they are the descendants of Medes, or of Parthians, or whether they are the Gardu or Gurdu, or Gutu, who, in remote times when Hittites and Accadians were great in the land, held the mountains north of Assyria, and after the fall of Nineveh became Aryanised by the over- whelming Aryan migrations of the period — are questions which no one has hitherto solved. . . . One may still vindicate for the Kurds a respectable antiquity, by identifying them . . . with the Carduchi ' Kurdistan is a region of western Asia, mostly in Turkey but partly in north- ern and northeastern Iraq and northwestern Iran, 35°-40° N. Lat., 38°-47° E. Long., area 74,000 square miles, population 2,500,000. The capital of Iran Kurd- istan was Sinneh, with a population of about 200,000. Historical References 79 of Xenophon (probably the Kudraha of the cuneiform inscriptions), who, in this very region, harassed and tormented the retreating Ten Thousand. Alike in country, character, and name (though this last is not universally admitted), the two peoples correspond. . . . Included, but never absorbed in the successive empires that have claimed the sovereignty of Western Asia — Macedonian, Roman, Parthian, Byzantine, Tartar, Persian, and Turkish — they have proved a thorn in the side of every ruling power. The famous Saladin (lit. Salah-ed-Din) of the Crusades, was, according to Abulfeda, a Kurd. So was Edrisi, the historian, who, when Sultan Selim I. wrested these regions in battle from Shah Ismail, the first Sefavi King of Persia, in 1514, was appointed by the conqueror to organise and administer the territory of his unruly countrymen. Over a century later, in 1639 A.D., a treaty between another Sultan and another Shah, Murad IV. of Turkey and Sefi of Persia, estab- lished a frontier line between the two empires, substantially identical with that which has ever since prevailed; and from this period, therefore, dates the di\'ided and, as a rule, in both cases illusory allegiance of the Kurdish tribes. On either side of the frontier, the subsequent history of the Kurds is obscure. . . . The tribal feeling was very strong amongst them, and in the absence of any interference — for the best of reasons, fear — on the part of the central power, individual chieftains acquired a position that was little short of despotic independence. About sixty years ago, in 1834, the Turks, under the capable lead of Reshid Mohammed Pasha, set about destroying this system and replacing it by Ottoman vilayets and valis in Turkish Kurdistan: while in Persian Kurdistan, where the problem, because smaller, was always less acute, the reigning dynasty, and particularly the present Shah, have pursued the familiar Kajar policy of breaking up the cohesion and ruling families of the dangerous tribes, and reasserting the authority of Teheran. At the present time, therefore, the Kurds, though addicted to outbreaks of lawlessness, are, in both territories, more subject to discipline than at any previous epoch of their history." Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, pp. 554-555) adds that "the number of Kurds under Ottoman rule is estimated at from one to one and a half million. The figures of those on Persian territory have been given as follows (exclusive of the Kurdish colonies ... in Khorasan): Frontier Kurds and Kurds of Azerbaijan 250,000 Kurds of Kurdistan proper, i.e. Sinna and Ardelan 120,000 Kurds of Kermanshah 230,000 Total 600,000 80 Anthropology of Iran "On the other hand, Colonel Stewart, in his latest report (1890), gives the number of Kurds in Azerbaijan as 450,000 . . . but no numerical calculations in Persia agree, or can be accepted with implicit confidence. The above-quoted table is, however, useful as supplying us with a fairly correct classification of the Persian Kurds." In his description, Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 553) says: "They have the black hair and eyes, the dark complexion, and the sullen swagger (so characteristic, too, of the Afghans), that are usually associated with picturesque ruffianism; and the sympathies or the fears of travellers have variously represented their features as strikingly handsome, or repulsively ugly." "Of these border-nomads and Azerbaijani Kurds, the following [1892a, vol. 1, pp. 555-557] is the latest computation that I have received: Tents or families Shekak. — Partly Turkish, partly Persian . . . Sunnis of Shafei sect 1,500 Herki. — Crossing in summer into Persia and descending in winter to the plains of Mosul 2,000 Oramar. — A few of whom cross the Persian frontier in summer . . . - Karapapak. — Villagers of the Sulduz and Baradost (Beranduz) plains; Shiahs 3,000 Mikri. — East and northeast of Suj Bulak; Sunnis and sedentary 2,000 Menkuri.— South, of Suj Bulak; Sunnis and sedentary 5,000 Marnash. — In district of Lahijan, west and south-west of Suj Bulak; Sun- nis and sedentary 3,000 Zeza. — In mountains north-west of Ushnu; Sunnis 1,000 Haideranlu. — Large tribe on frontier near Khoi "Suj Bulak, with a population of 15,000, is the local capital of the Kurds of Azerbaijan. . . . "Between the provinces of Azerbaijan and Kermanshah is situated the small province of Ardelan, or Persian Kurdistan proper, inhabited mainly by sedentary Kurds. The capital, Sinna, is situated in an open, cultivated valley. ... It is only within the present reign that this province has been thoroughly subdued to the central authority. For centuries it was ruled by almost inde- pendent Guran chieftains, of the house of Beni Ardelan, claiming descent from Saladin, and bearing the title of wali of Ardelan. When Rich was here, in 1820, he found the Wali absolutely inde- pendent of Teheran, and ruling his province like a kingdom. Upon the death, however, of the last male in the direct line, about thirty years ago, the Shah disinherited the remaining male relatives, whose family are now reduced to insignificance, and signalised his recovered sovereignty by appointing his uncle as Governor. I have Historical References 81 been supplied with the following list of Kurds in Ardelan, but cannot vouch for its accuracy. Tents or Kurds Locality families Kalhur Sakiz 300 Tailaku Hawatu 600 Gulbaki Hawatu 500 Sheikh Ismail* Isfandabad 300 Purpishah* Isfandabad 300 Mundami Hasandabad 500 Mamun, Jabrachi Bilawar 300 Gushki Bilawar 400 Gurgai Lailagh 300 Lek Lailagh 1,000 Shamshiri* On the frontier 400 ♦ Nomads migrating in winter into Turkish territory, "Lastly are the Kurds of Kermanshah, or the province of which Kermanshahan is the capital. Through this district, and through its capital city . . . runs its main caravan route between Teheran and Baghdad. . . . The province borders on Turkish territory on the west and on the Persian province of Luristan . . . on the south. It may be considered the middle or dividing line between Northern and Southern Persia. . . . These are the Kurdish tribes of Kermanshah: Tents or families Kalhur.* — Partly nomad, partly sedentary. (Their summer quarters are the mountains to the north-west of the Pusht-i-Kuh; their winter quarters are the plains of Zohab and Kasr- i-Shirin, as far as the Turkish frontier.) They are vari- ously reported to be Ali lUahis and Shiahs 5,000 Sinjabi. — In Mahidasht plain, west of Kermanshah; Ali Illahis. . . . 1,500 Guran. — Partly nomad, partly sedentary; between Mahidasht and Harun Nishin Khan; Ali Illahis 5,000 Kerindi. — Partly nomad, partly sedentary; between Kerind and Harunabad; Ali Illahis 2,000 Bowanij and Jelalawand. — Under the sertip of the Kerindi 1,000 Zangenah or Zenjina. — Shiahs 1,500 Hamawand. — Sedentary 200 Sunguru and Kuliahi. — Sedentary; north of Kermanshah 2,500 Nanakuli. — Sedentary; west of Kermanshah 300 Jelilawand. — Sedentary; east of Kermanshah 300 Mafi, Chuban- kera, Ghazil. — Sedentary Hululan or Halilan.^\ — Nomads in the mountains south-east of Kermanshah, and on the upper waters of the Kerkhah 4,000 Akhur.— 1,000 * "Sir H. Rawlinson fancied from the marked Jewish cast of their countenances that they might be descendants of the Samaritan captives who were placed in the Assyrian city of Kalhur Halah (Sarpul- i-Zohab?)." t "I doubt if the Hululan ought to be included in this table, for they belong to the Lur tribes of Luristan, who disavow any blood-connection with the Kurds." 82 Anthropology of Iran Next to Kurdistan and also in the northwest area lies Azerbaijan. Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 546) gives the following calculation of the Nestorian population of Azerbaijan: Families Families Salmas district 700 Baradost or Beranduz 100 Somai and Chara 100 Tergavar 500 Urumiah district 3,600 Mergavar 100 Sulduz 400 Total 5,500 "It has been common to estimate these families at four or five persons apiece, and hence the total usually given of 20,000 to 25,000 Persian Nestorians. The missionaries, however, are of opinion that the population has so much increased in the peaceful reign of the present Shah that eight persons to each family is a fairer computa- tion. Adopting this average, we shall get a total of 44,000. . . . The Nestorians of the plains are robust, broad-shouldered men, with open countenances, fair complexions, and frequently with red beards. The mountain Nestorians are wild and uncouth, and often undistinguishable from the Kurds, with whom, however, they are at constant and deadly enmity." Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 548) states that "the number of Arme- nians resident in Azerbaijan is inferior to the Nestorians, but is yet considerable. The census is calculated as follows: — Families Families Maku 300 Karadagh 1,000 Kotur 100 Maragha 120 Khoi 400 Miandoab 80 Salmas Plain 1,200 Suj Bulak 60 Somai and Chara 100 Tabriz 740 Urumiah 400 Ardebil 35 Sulduz 100 Baradost or Beranduz 180 Total 4,815 "The Armenians being less prolific, less gregarious, and less stay-at-home than the Nestorians, it is recommended to compute their families at an average of six persons, which will give a total of 28,890; or, together with the Nestorians, a grand total of 72,890 for the Christian population of Azerbaijan." Passing south to Luristan, Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 273-275) writes: "Who the Lurs are and whence they came is one of the unsolved and insoluble riddles of history. A people without a history, a literature, or even a tradition, presents a phenomenon in face of which science stands abashed. Fifty years ago Rawlinson described them as an 'unknown and interesting people'. . . . Are they Turks? Are they Persians? Are they Semites? All three hypotheses have Historical References 83 been urged. They appear to belong to the same ethnical group as the Kurds, their neighbors on the north; nor does their language, which is a dialect of Persian, differ materially from the Kurdish tongue.^ On the other hand, they themselves consider it an insult to be confounded with the Kurds, whom they call Leks; and the majority of writers have agreed in regarding them as the veritable relics of the old Aryan or Iranian stock, who preceded Arabs, Turks, and Tartars in the land. Rawlinson says that their language is descended from the old Farsi, which was coeval with, but distinct from, the Pehlevi tongue in the days of the Sassanian kings. Whilst, however, we may accept this as the most probable hypothesis. . . . we are not compelled to endorse the conjectural connection of Bakhtiari with Bactria, which has been propounded by some writers,^ or to localise their ancestral home. It is sufficient to believe that they are Aryans by descent, and to know that they have lived for centuries in their present mountains. The word Feili means a rebel, while the word Lur is commonly applied as a synonym for a boor by the modern Persians. . . . "In 1836 Rawlinson gave the numbers of the Feili Lurs and their dependencies as 56,000 families; in 1843 Layard returned them as 49,000 families. In the same years respectively, Rawlinson gave the totals of the Bakhtiaris and their dependencies as 28,000 families, Layard as 37,700 families. A calculation made in 1881 fixed the total of persons as follows: Feilis and dependencies, 210,000; Bakh- tiaris and dependencies, 170,000; Kuhgelus, etc., 41,000; grand total of Lurs, 421,000. I am disposed to think that this is an ex- aggerated census; although the prevalence of polygamy among the tribes, and the large families reported by recent travellers, may be held to justify the opposite opinion. "Lur-i-Kuchik, or Lesser Luristan, embraces the region between Dizful on the south, and the confines of Kermanshah on the north, and between the Ab-i-Diz on the east, and the Turkish frontier on the west. It is subdivided into two sections called respectively Pish-Kuh, i.e.. Before the Mountains, or Cismontane Luristan, and Pusht-i-Kuh, i.e.. Behind the Mountains, or Transmontane Luristan, the dividing ridge being that section of the Zagros range which is locally known as the Kebir Kuh. Till the accession of the Kajar 1 "Rich (vol. 1, p. 130) declared that the Bakhtiaris were Kurds." 2 "Some have gone so far as to base on this resemblance the assertion that the Bakhtiari are the relics of one of the Greek colonies left by Alexander in Asia, an hypothesis for which the further support is claimed of a similarity in the Greek and Bakhtiari national dances." 84 Anthropology of Iran dynasty there was no political distinction between the two; but Pish-Kuh was taken away by Agha Mohammed Shah from the Vali of Luristan, who has ever since been forced to content himself with Pusht-i-Kuh. Hence it arises that the Feili nomenclature, which was formerly applied to the whole of Lur-i-Kuchik, has become restricted in popular usage to the Pusht-i-Kuh, the Feilis proper constituting the bulk of the population in the latter district. "Pish-Kuh, which is the eastern portion of the Luristan province, has for its boundaries Kermanshah on the north, the Ab-i-Diz and the Bakhtiari country on the east and south, and the River Kerkhah on the west. It differs both in political organisation and in the character of its people from Pusht-i-Kuh." Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 320-322) passes to the coast plains and to an Arab population. "The administrative title of Arabistan [Khuzistan], literally the Land of the Wanderers, is applied to a larger area than that embraced by the plains alone, many of the Bakhtiaris being under the jurisdiction of its Governor, whose official residence is at Shushter. Nevertheless the title more cor- rectly describes the alluvial levels between the mountains and the sea, including the respective plains of Dizful, Shushter, Hawizeh, and Ram Hormuz. Its boundaries may be defined as a line from the Kerkhah River to Mohammerah on the west, the Bakhtiari hills on the north, the Shat-el-Arab and Persian Gulf on the south, and the Hindian River on the east. This province is identical with the ancient Elam, the classical Susiana, and the more modern Khuzistan. The latter designation appears now to have fallen into disuse. . . .^ "The population of this region is either pure Arab, or, more frequently, mixed Arab and Persian. The introduction of the former element commenced with the Arab conquests in 641 A.D., and has been recruited ever since by spontaneous immigration from the other side of the Tigris and the Persian Gulf, as well as by direct importation, Shah Ismail having, it is said, brought a large number of Arab colonists from the district of Nejd. . . . "Of the Arab peoples the most important are the Ka'b^ (vulg. Cha'b) Arabs, of whom there were originally seventy-two tribes. 1 "Khuzistan is thought to be derived from the word Uwaja, signifying abo- rigines, that occurs in the cuneiform inscriptions, and is, perhaps, also the origin of the Uxii of Strabo and Pliny. On the other hand, Mordtmann derives Khuzistan from a Persian word meaning sugar-cane." 2 In central and southern Iraq the soft ch combination is preferred to the hard k. I I L Historical References 85 The bulk of these have died out or disappeared; but the race is still the most numerous in Arabistan. Layard in 1841 gave a tabulated list of their tribal divisions and subdivisions, many of which are not now known in the country. From a list compiled by Mr. Robertson, the late British Consul at Busrah, I take the fol- lowing names as those of the Arab tribes of the province, not Ka'bs alone, who are said still to number 500 or more adult males. They are the Al-bu-Ghubaish, Asakirah, Khanafirah, Bawieh, Bait-el- Haji, Beni Rushaid, Beni Saleh, Beni Turuf, Hamudi, Humaid, Kindazli, Jurf, Kathir, Muhaisen, Naisieh, Nasara, Sharaifat, Shurafa, Suwari, Sudan, Suleiman. The number of smaller tribes is very large. On the eastern borders of the province are some other Arab tribes not included in the above list, notably the Muntefik of Hawizeh, and . . . the Beni Lam. The bulk of these, however, particularly the Beni Lam, are in Turkish territory; and of the latter, therefore, I shall not again speak. The Arab and semi-Arab tribes of the province have been reckoned at various totals between 170,000 and 200,000, the larger sum being thus arrived at: — Ka'b Arabs 62,000 Mixed Arabs and Persians Ram Hormuz 27,000 Shushter, Dizful, and Hawizeh 110,000 Total 199,000 "The history of the Ka'b Arabs, which is typical of that of most of their neighbors, has been as follows.^ They are said originally to have migrated from the Arabian shore of the Persian Gulf to the marshes near the junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates, where they became Turkish subjects, and acted as buffalo herdsmen; until, being propelled by drought, or expelled by another Arab tribe, they moved southwards and established a new settlement on a canal leading from the Karun, which they called Kaban or Cobban. Pushing eastwards towards the Jerahi River they presently came into collision with the tribe of Afshars, whose headquarters were at Dorak on that river." Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 327-328) con- tinues: "The Ka'b Arabs occupy the entire extent of territory from Mohammerah and the Karun River eastwards towards the River Hindian, a distance of over one hundred miles. The natural richness of this region is enormous. . . . From long residence on Persian 1 "Vide C. Niebuhr, Voyage en Arable, vol. ii, p. 160; H. Layard, Journal of the R. G. S., vol. xvi, pp. 36-45, and Early Adventures, vol. ii, passim; H. Rawlinson, Journal of the R. G. S., vol. xxvii, p. 185; W. F. Ainsworth, Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition, vol. ii, pp. 207-18; Baron C. A. De Bode, Travels, vol. ii, pp. 110-20." 86 Anthropology of Iran territories the Ka'b Arabs have lost much of their own national character. They have intermarried with the Persians, and have adopted the Shiah religion, as well as parts of the Persian dress. . . . "Among the remaining Arab tribes I need only notice the Munte- fik of Hawizeh, on the extreme south-eastern [southwestern] border of Persian territory. They appear to have migrated thither from Turk- ish soil in 1812, and to have ousted that section of the Ka'b Arabs who occupied this district. Hawizeh was once an important place, with a population of 24,000 souls, at the time when it was the capital of the Vali of Arabistan. ... In 1837, however, the main dam [of the river Kerkhah] burst; the river dissipated itself in futile swamps, and Hawizeh shrank from a great town to a petty village. It is still governed by a sheikh of the old ruling family, claiming a sacred lineage; and according to his strength or weakness he receives the allegiance of a larger or smaller number of tribes. The majority of his people have always remained Sunnis. Surrounded by their marshes, they are fairly safe from encroachment." In the adjacent territory live the Bakhtiaris, whom Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 300) describes in these words: "Alike in costume and complexion, darkness is the prevailing hue of the external man. Their hair is black, with its two long uncut tufts curled behind the ear, black their bushy eyebrows and flashing eyes beneath, black the beard and mustache, black the small skull-cap upon the head, black the coat of the male, and blue-black the indigo-dyed cloak of the female. The men are robust and muscular in appearance, and have a very manly bearing. . . . The women are tall and dark, of shapely limbs and erect carriage. . . . Cleanliness, it is to be feared, is little known or appreciated by the nomads, and to this must be attributed the diseases, both of the skin and eye, to which they are liable. The latter ailment is exaggerated by the blinding glare of the sun from rock and sand, and by the scant protection afforded by the national head-dress (cf. Bishop)." In the ancient province of Fars, considerably south and east of the Bakhtiari country, Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 103) writes that the inhabitants "pride themselves upon the purity of their origin, the correctness of their tongue, and the excellence of their wit. No doubt we encounter here a less mixed Iranian type than else- where, as is evident from the darker complexions and clear-cut features, the brown hair and blue or gray eyes of the northern provinces being rarely met with in the south." Historical References 87 The migratory tribes of Fars and its administrative subdivision of Laristan, Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 112-114) states, "fall under two heads: Turkish Lurs and Arabs, the principal tribe of the former being the Kashkai. I have called them Turks because that is their origin, the tradition being that they are the descendants of a race transplanted to Persia, by the Mongol Hulaku Khan, from Kashgar; and I have called them Lurs because they are considered to belong to the Lur family, and in manners and customs differ very little from the Bakhtiaris and Kuhgelus. The Kashkais cover, in their biennial migrations, an immense tract of country; for, whilst in winter they are found to be in their kishlaks, or winter quarters, in the garmsir, or warm region of the coast fringe, known as Dashtistan (the Land of Plains), and in Laristan, as the spring advances they move northwards ... to their yeilaks, or summer- haunts in the highlands' .... "These tribes, like those which I shall afterwards describe, are under chieftains drawn from one of their own ruling families. There are two governing offices, those of Ilkhani and Ilbegi. . . . "The Kashkais were once a numerous and powerful aggregation; but their ranks were greatly thinned by the famine of 1871-2; yearly more and more abandon nomadic and take to settled existence; and other causes of decline were thus stated to me in a communi- cation derived from the tribe: — " 'All the Kashkai tribes are now under the Ilbegi Darab Khan. Twenty years ago there were over 60,000 families of these tribes, all under . . . Mohammed Kuli Khan, the father of the pres- ent Ilkhani. At that time they were able to bring into the field 120,000 (?) horse, but, after the death of the above chief, the tribal affairs fell into the hands of smaller Khans, which resulted in internal dissension. Owing to this, about 5,000 families went over to the Bakhtiaris, and an equal number to the Iliat Khamsah, and about 4,000 families dispersed themselves to different villages. This reduced the total to about 25,000 families, which is their present number.' I may say that I do not accept even the reduced total, the latest information which I possess rendering it doubtful whether the tribe now numbers more than 10,000 to 12,000 tents. . . . "I append a table both of the Kashkai and Arab Iliats of Fars, as their clans have been returned by different authorities during 1 "The best authorities on the Kashkais are Keith Abbott (Journal of the R.G.S., Vol. xxvii); De Bode, Travels, vol. i, p. 256; E. Stack, Six Months in Persia, vol. i, caps v., vi.; and F. C. Andreas. The name is erroneously derived by Stack from the Turkish kachmak, to flee." Anthropology of Iran recent years. The Arab tribes known under the collective title of Khamsah, are far less numerous than the Turks, and are said not to number more than 3,000 tents. They are scattered over the same region, and claim descent from the Beni Sharban tribe of Arabia. . . . Nomads of Fars and Laristan Kashkai Tribes (Turks) 1875 Kashkuli Darashuli Shish Beluki Farsi Madan Safi Khani Igdar Ali Kuli Khani Gallazan Kuruni Karachai Dadagai Rahimi Kuri-i-Shuli Urd-i-Shiri Jafir Begi Imam Kuli Khani Darab Khani Amala-i-Ilkhani Bahadur Khani Kubad Khani 1890 Nomad: Kashkuli Darashuli Shish Beluki Farsi Madan Safakhani Ikdir Alakuini Gallazan Haj Masih Khan Arkapan Bulli Kizili Khawanin Naukarbab Stationary: Cheharpinjah Pablisi Zanguin Alabeglu Khamsah Col. Ross 1875 Baseri Napar Baharlu Arayalu Abulwardi Amalah Shahi Mamasenni (Turks) Tribes (Arabs) Curzon 1889 Arab Bajri Nofar Baharlu Apatlu 1890 Basiri Nafar Baharlu Ainalu Shaiwani Safari Jabbarah Turning from Laristan to the east, we find that Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 244) estimates the population of Kerman at about 40,000:^ "In 1810 Pottinger found no Jews, Armenians, or Hindus; but there are now representatives of all three nationalities, the Hindus, some forty in number, and half-Persianised in dress and appearance, being traders from Shikarpur and Sind." With regard to Seistan, Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 228) states that it "emerges into the clearer light of ascertained history in the time of Alexander the Great, when it was known as Drangiana (identical with the land of the Herodotean Sarangians). He prob- ably passed this way on his march eastwards to India; whilst on his return therefrom, though he pursued a more southerly line him.self, through Gedrosia (Mekran) to Carmania (Kerman), he despatched a light column under Craterus through Arachotia and ' "In 1878 a careful census was made by the then governor, which showed 39,718 Mohammedans, 1,341 Parsis, 85 Jews, and 26 Hindus, or a total of 41,170 persons." Historical References 89 Drangiana.i Under the Sassanian monarchs Seistan was a flourishing center of the Zoroastrian worship." Concerning the Persian province of Baluchistan, Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 258-259) states: "The area of the province has been estimated at 60,000 square miles. ... In this extent of country may- be encountered almost every variety both of scenery and climate." Besides the Makran Desert, which is composed of thin particles of wind-driven sand, there are in Baluchistan "considerable rivers, great mountains, and in parts abundant cultivation. Rocks, rivers and trees . . . are succeeded by arid bluffs and naked ravines. On the coast the heat is sometimes terrific. ... In the mountain plateaux a cooler and most agreeable temperature is encountered. . . . The prevailing tribe is that of the Beluchis, who give to the country its name. They claim to be Arabs by descent, of the Koreish tribe, and allege an ancestral migration at the end of the seventh century from the neighbourhood of Aleppo, whence their tradition represents them as having been expelled by the Khalif Yezid for taking the part of the martyred Hussein. No record, however, exists of their journey, or of the people whom they found on their arrival; and from the evidence, both of their physiognomy and of their language, which is an Aryan or Aryanised tongue, akin to Pehlevi or old Persian, the hypothesis must be rejected in favour of a non-Arab genealogy. ^ Pottinger, on the other hand, attributed to them a Turkoman, i.e. Seljuk-Turkish descent. Though numerically the most important tribe in Beluchistan, they yield 1 "The great authority on the early history and inhabitants of Seistan is Sir H. Rawlinson's essay, entitled 'Notes on Seistan,' published in the Journal of the R.G.S., vol. xliii, pp. 272-294 (1873). Compare also the excellent and accurate summary of Dr. Bellew, From the Indus to the Tigris, pp. 248-262, and Inquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, 1891. The chief modern inhabitants of Persian Seistan are the Seistanis, who occupy a servile position among other and dominant tribes; the Kaianis, claiming descent from the Kai dynasty of Cyrus; the Kurd Galis, a branch of the Kurds of Kurdistan, who emigrated and established the MaUk Kurd dynasty of Ghor, 1245-1383 a.d.; Iranian elements known as Tajik; and Beluchis, of whom the principal tribes in Seistan are the Sarbandi, who were transported by Timur to Hamadan, but brought back by Nadir Shah, and the Shahreki." See also Curzon, 1892a, vol. 1, pp. 379, 591, 612. 2 "Dr. Bellew {Inquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan, 1891) identifies the Beluchis with the Balaecha of the Chohan Rajput tribe who originally occupied the Nushki district. The tribe variously known as Kurush, Korish, Gorich, and Guraish, which is still widely extended on the Indus border, is the Royal Rajput Kerush, Keruch, or Kurech. When these tribes were converted to Islam, they changed their name to Koreish, and pretended an Arab descent in order to conceal the fact. Bellew, therefore, assigns to the Beluchis a Rajput or Indian pedigree, and explains their dialect as a Persianised Indian tongue. The Rinds, who are now spoken of as a branch of the Beluch stock, are in reality the tribe of which the Beluchis are a branch, the name being derived from the Rin or Run of Kuch, the Sanskrit Aranya, or 'waste.' " 90 Anthropology of Iran a moral and political ascendancy to smaller, but more warlike, tribes of Kurds and Nushirwanis (themselves claiming descent from Nushirwan, the famous Sassanian king, but in reality deriving their name from a district so called, near Isfahan, whence they originally emigrated); while in parts, e.g. in Dashtiari, are a people, more obviously of Hindu lineage, whose ancestors, though they are unaware of it, came from Sind, and whose language contains many Hindu words. There is also throughout the country a considerable admixture of the African element, due to the large importation of slaves from Muscat and Zanzibar. Some of the faces present a thoroughly negro type. The ordinary Beluchi ... is not nearly so formidable a specimen of humanity as the Afghan, though like him he wears his long black hair in curls, frequently moistened with rancid butter. In parts of the country they are in a very backward and degraded condition, but little removed from primitive savagery. . . . Politically they have but two feelings; an intense passion for tribal independence . . . and an outspoken dislike of the Persians, whom they call Gajars (pronounced not unlike the English word cudgel), the Beluch version of the name of the reigning dynasty." Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 260) quotes "a, Persian authority who has calculated the population of Persian Beluchistan as 250,000; which is believed to be a fairly accurate estimate." Curzon states (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 262-263) that Captain Jennings found Sarhad, north of Beluchistan, "to be inhabited by Beluchi, Kurd, and Brahui tribes, with an alleged total of 13,500 families.^ All were Sunnis. . . . Serhad produces an unlimited supply of sheep and goats, and grows an immense amount of tamarisk, camelthorn, and asafoetida. Its principal place is Washt, a large village inhabited by Kurds." The population of Yezd, according to Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 240-241), "which at the beginning of the century is said to have been 100,000, but which sank to 40,000 in 1860-70, is now reported to have risen, if the suburbs be included, to something like the original figure, although 70,000 to 80,000 is a more probable estimate for the city itself. These totals include a variety of elements, there being a Jewish population now calculated at 2,000 (they are dis- tinguished by being obliged to wear a patch in front of their coats), a fluctuating Hindu contingent, engaged in trade (in 1866 Sir F. Goldsmid found seventeen, in 1871 five), and a large Guebre or • "This is, of course, a mistake. So, at the other extreme, is Mirza Mehdi Khan's estimate of 1,425 families." Historical References 91 Parsi contribution. . . . Their numbers have been variously reported as from 3,500 to 7,000 at different periods in the century, confusion having been habitual between the urban residents and the total inhabiting the surrounding district. ^ In the city they possess schools of their own, a high priest, and a secular head, four fire- altars, which in the prudent obscurity of private houses sustain the undying flame,'- and several Towers of Silence or places of exposure in the adjacent hills." In passing northward, Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 179) describes the population of Khurasan as being "as varied as are its physical characteristics. Successive waves of conquest have brought hither specimens of most of the great ethnic divisions of Asia, and, retiring, have left them rooted, in greater or less degree, to the soil. Here, in addition to the original Iranian stock, and to other members of the Aryan family, are descendants of the Mongols who came in the wake of Timur and Jenghiz Khan, Arabs who were borne on the flood tide of Mohammedan conquest, Tartars, Turkomans, and Turks — three really interchangeable names for different branches of the same great family that, in succession to the Mongols, startled the West first with the Seljuk and afterwards with the Ottoman invasion. The 'Encyclopaedia Britannica,' in its latest edition [i.e. before 1892], gives the relative proportions of these races in Khorasan as follows: [Tajiks 400,000 I. Iranians \ Kurds 250,000 [Beluchis 10,000 II. Mongols / Timuris 250,000 \ Hazaras 50,000 III. Tartars f Afshars 1 100,000 \ Kajars / IV. Arabs 100,000 Total 1,160,000 "But from what I can gather this estimate exceeds at least two- fold the verifiable total of the population, which may be set down as between 500,000 and 600,000; the terrible famine of 1872 having inflicted damages from which the province has never recovered." Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 191) now crosses into Khurasan proper, and glancing in an easterly direction pursues his inspection of the frontiers. "We pass from the Turkomans to the Kurds, and in the 1 "In 1879 General Schindler found 1,240 Parsis living in the city, and 5,240 in 22 neighboring villages. Total, 6,480. 'Die Parsen in Persien,' Zeit. d. M. G., 1882." 2 "This is the allusion in Moore's 'Yezd's eternal mansion of the Fire.' " 92 Anthropology of Iran Bujnurd district encounter the first of the Kurdish communities whose ancestors were transplanted by Shah Abbas about 1600 A.D. to the mountain border of Khorasan. . . . Whereas Kuchan, how- ever, is chiefly peopled with Zaferanlu Kurds, it is the Shahdillu tribe who settled at Bujnurd, and still constitute the large majority of its inhabitants." In conclusion, Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, pp. 97-98) notes that "it was characteristic of the dispositions of a great monarch that, recognising the inability of so timid a people as the Persians success- fully to resist the invaders themselves. Shah Abbas looked elsewhere for his frontier garrison. Just as he transported an entire Armenian community from his north-west provinces to Isfahan, in order to teach trade and attract prosperity to his newly founded capital, so he now transferred an entire community of warlike Kurdish tribesmen from the same quarter, and planted them in the moun- tainous glens and uplands of Khorasan, By this judicious act he served a double purpose; for he both fortified his position in the east and relieved himself of the insecurity arising from the bloody feuds and divisions of the Kurdish clans in the west. The expatri- ated tribes were the Shahdillu, Zaferanlu, Kaiwanlu, and Amanlu; and it is said that while the transplantation of 40,000 families was originally contemplated by Abbas, the resistance of several of the chieftains reduced the number actually moved to 15,000 families." To the south of Meshed, states Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 199), lie "the border districts of Jam, or Turbat-i-Sheikh-Jam (i.e. the Tomb of Sheikh Jam, a local saint of immense sanctity, who was buried here), Bakharz and Khaf, which are at present united under a single Persian governor of Arab blood. . . . The bulk of the population under his rule also belong to one of the Chehar Aimak tribes. . . . They are of Arab origin, and are called Timuris, a name which they are said to have derived from the great Timur, who originally deported them from their native country in a rage because they had plundered his mother when on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and who then handed them over as subjects to an eminent Seyid, to whom also he gave his own daughter in marriage. There are settlements of Timuris in other parts of Khorasan, notably near Nishapur and Sebzewar; but the bulk of the tribe are found in the three border districts, now under discussion." Of the concluding sections, which deal with the northeastern part of Iran, Curzon (1892a, vol. 1. p. 198) writes that "it is in the Meshed district which extends to the Heri Rud that we first en- Historical References 93 counter" various tribes of mixed origin and alien religion. "Round the capital the Iranian element is in the ascendant; but as we approach the frontier we come across colonies or detachments who belong in race and religion to the Chehar Aimak (lit. Four Settle- ments), or wandering tribes of the Afghan border. ^ These are the Jamshidis and Hazaras. The former are of Persian origin, but the greater part of the tribe long ago left Persian territory and settled in Afghanistan. The remnant were brought back after the siege of Herat in 1857, established at Kanegosha, near Meshed, and required to furnish a mercenary force to the Persian Government. . . . They are of Persian descent and speak the Persian language. . . . The Hazaras, on the other hand, never were a Persian race. They belong to the Turanian family, as their Mongolesque features, their crooked eyes, and paucity of beard indicate. Some of them are settled in the Meshed district, but the greater number further south at Mohsinabad, in the district of Bakharz. By far their most extraordinary feature is that, though Persian neither in blood, religion, nor affinity, they speak the Persian tongue. They profess the Sunni Mohammedan faith. . . ." At Kalat-i-Nadiri, which lies eighty kilometers north of Meshed, Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 139) says that "the inhabitants are Turks chiefly of the Jallayer and Benjat tribes, with a few Arab and Kurdish families as well. Their total number does not exceed 1,000. They are to be found in two villages, situated in the valley by which the stream which I followed enters and traverses Kelat, and in six hamlets upon the uplands or higher elevations." In the Asterabad district settled the Kajars,^ according to Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 392), a people who "are not content with any more modest descent than from Japhet, the son of Noah. Even if we question the authenticity of so illustrious a pedigree, it is yet indisputable that for 700 years the Kajar tribe have been heard of in history. A chieftain of that race ruled the country from Rhey [Rayy] to the Oxus, as deputy for one of the Mongol descendants 1 "The Chehar Aimak were originally, as their name implies, four tribes, viz. The Jamshidi, Firuzkuhi, Timuri, and Taimuni. Later on, two other tribes, the Hazara and Kipchak, were included in the designation. The Firuzkuhis, Taimunis, and Kipchaks, the two first of whom are said to be of Persian origin, are nov/ not found in Persia. Members of the other four branches are. Dr. Bellew's classifi- cation is different. He gives the original Chehar Aimak as the Timuri, Taimuni, Dahi, and Suri; the Jamshidi and Firuzkuhi as subdivisions of Timuri, and the Hazaras as synonymous with the Dahi." 2 "The Dynasty of the Kajars, translated from an Oriental Persian MS. by Sir Harford Jones Brydges, 1833. Compare Morier, Journal of the R.G.S., vol. vii, p. 23L" 94 Anthropology of Iran of Jenghiz Khan. Timur is said to have banished them to Syria, but afterwards to have suffered them to return. Later on they espoused the cause of the Sefavi Shahs and assisted in raising them to the throne, in return for which service they were included in the Kizil-bash or seven Red-Head tribes, so called from the scarlet head-covering which they were permitted to wear. According to one account the mother of Shah Ismail himself was of Kajar blood." ^ Passing westward we come to Tehran, the capital city, where, according to Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 333), estimates of the popula- tion varied from 175,000 to 220,000. He remarks that there are about 4,000 Jews and 1,000 Armenians in the city. To the north lie the maritime provinces of Mazanderan- and Gilan,' where dwell some of the most interesting peoples of Iran. It is probable that within these small village communities there exist at the present time remnants of ancient migrations to the coast from Central Asia. Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 364) gives the population for these two provinces at from 150,000 to 250,000. Fraser, he says, described the inhabitants as "stout, well-formed, and handsome, the children being particularly beautiful. Of the two, he reported the Mazanderanis as the darker and swarthier. . . . The Mazander- anis have been commonly denounced as the Boeotians of Persia. . . . The natives are said to be descended from the ancient Medes and speak a dialect of Persian, which differs slightly in the two provinces, and a third form of which, with more Pehlevi words than in either of the others, is spoken in the highlands of Talish."^ This concludes the extracts from Curzon, which have been arranged geographically so as to be of greater value to the physical anthropologist. The index to Chapter III (pp. 601-651) will assist the reader in finding references to particular areas or tribes. 189Jf. — N. P. Danilov resided for five years in Iran as the medical officer attached to the Russian Imperial Embassy in Tehran. Ex- > "So says Mr. Watson in his History of Persia; but I have always understood that the mother of Shah Ismail was Martha, the daughter of Uzun Hasan, chieftain of the White Sheep, and his Christian wife Despoina, who was a daughter of Kalo Johannes, Emperor of Trebizond." ^ "Mazanderan signifies Maz (a Pehlevi, or old Persian word for mountains) and anderun (within, the inner part, whence its application to the women's quar- ters in a house), i.e. the hollow between the mountains and the sea." (Curzon, 1892a, vol. 1, pp. 354-355.) ' "Marco Polo (cap. iv) called the Caspian 'Mer de Gheluchelan' (i.e. Ghel ou Ghelan), and the silk 'Ghelle.' " (Curzon, 1892a, vol. 1, p. 355.) * "As long ago as the tenth century El Istakhri said: 'In Taberistan they have a peculiar dialect, neither Arabick nor Persian; and in many parts of Deilman (Dilem) their language is not understood.' " Historical References 95 tracts from his elaborate and detailed report contain anthropometric data obtained for the most part from soldiers. The text, which was obtained from the library of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, was translated and summarized by V. N. Rimsky- Korsakoff for my selection of relevant data. Danilov (cols. 10-19, 26-28) points out first that in prehistoric times the Aryans in different parts of Persia came into contact with peoples differing from them in physical characters. For example, in southern Iran they acquired a darker skin, thicker lips, and curlier hair than in the northern region. In the later periods the Aryans mixed with Semitic stocks, namely, Assyrians, Arabs, and Jews, and with peoples inhabiting Asia Minor and Greece, as well as with Turkish and Mongolian tribesmen. Furthermore, environment undoubtedly had an effect on the physical type. In many cases dissimilarities in language, customs, or religion are not correlated with anthropometric differences. Danilov, considering it superfluous to give a list of the nomad tribes, indicates only the main subdivisions. The inhabitants of Azerbaijan are occupied mainly in agri- culture, horticulture, and cattle-breeding. Robust, relatively tall, and possessing dark hair and dark eyes, they speak an Azerbaijani dialect of the Turkish language, and are therefore usually called the Azerbaijan Tatars. They do not, however, resemble the true Asiatic Tatars. One can even assume that they have retained a purer and more uniform physical type than the other tribes. They are Shiah Mohammedans. Khamseh province is inhabited by tribes having the usual Iranian characteristics, as well as by semi-nomadic tribes, who have certain Mongolian traits in the breadth of the face, breadth of the nasal bridge, and an increase in head breadth as compared with head length. Danilov examined only a few members of the Babali tribe. The Talish, who live in the Caspian Sea region, speak a Persian dialect. The Gilanis and the coastal Mazanderanis differ but little in language and physical characters. Of medium stature, with hair and eyes somewhat lighter in color than the inhabitants of the Iranian Plateau, they are characterized by paleness of skin and sluggish movements which are probably due to the fact that they live and work in the unhealthy boggy regions of many rice fields. The mountainous region of Mazanderan includes two types of natives; one robust and very hirsute, the other slender and dis- 96 Anthropology of Iran tinguished by a thin, emaciated face, slightly curved nose, pointed chin, abundant dark hair, and black eyes. It should be noted that at various times this region was inhabited by Jews, Armenians, Kurds, and Afghans. In addition to some nomad tribes the basic group of Khurasan is the Tajiks, whose cephalic index is quite different from that of the Iranians, since they are typical brachycephals and in this respect resemble more the Armenians, Jews, Assyrians, and Mongols. The Hats or nomadic tribes are distributed among the settled population of Iran. The Kurds who inhabit Kurdistan and the Kermanshah province must be included among the Iranians because of their similarity in language and head form. The Kurds of central Iran differ from other tribes in their haughty bearing, aquiline nose, and more prominent malars. They represent a transitional stage between nomad and settled tribes. As far as one can judge from the very small number of observa- tions on the Lurs, their religion and physical type indicate that they belong to the purest Irani tribes. The Bakhtiaris, who are of mixed origin, are characterized by a short head and in this respect are second only to the Tajiks. The Susians, who are hybrid Negritos, inhabit the region northwest of Shiraz. While the Assyrian-Chal- deans and Armenians of western Iran are brachycephalic, the Gabrs, fire-worshipers related to the Indian Parsis, are dolicho- cephalic. The Turkic tribes have mixed to such an extent with other peoples that it is difficult to place them in a separate anthro- pological group, and their subdivisions show marked differences. Certain nomad Turkic tribes in southern Iran probably have mixed with the Negritos and thus acquired some of their characteristics, such as a very broad and slightly flattened, short nose, rather dark skin, and very small stature; they call themselves "Siah" i.e. blacks [cf. Wilson, 1932a, p. 34]. Another Turkic tribe, which has retained its Turkic name Khelladzh (Khalej?), has settled not far from Tehran in the Mez- legansk region and is included in the tables under the name of Mezlegants. The majority are dolichocephals. Since short heads have almost entirely disappeared the suggestion is that they have become considerably mixed with the Iranians. In general, it can be said that the settled tribes of central Iran belong to the same type, in which the Iranian element predominates, having acquired Turkic-Mongolian elements in the north and Negrito elements in the south, as well as mixing with other types Historical References 97 in some localities. The measurements also include a special group, the Ishtahardis, who speak an old Persian dialect, which the neigh- boring tribes do not understand. They are relatively tall in stature and inhabit the region surrounding Ishtahard, sixty-five kilometers southeast of Kazvin. He adds that there are many discrepancies in the nomenclature of the tribes adopted by various authors. For example, the tribe Ajemis actually does not exist. In Arabic, adzham means "foreign" and the Arabs used this term to designate all those who were not Arabs, Ajemis simply meaning Persians, the urban population of Iran. Among the 152 individuals examined the skin color was yellow- brown. Individuals not subjected to the influence of the intense sunlight, for example, prisoners or hospital cases, were much paler. The same could be said with regard to women inhabiting the cities, who were more protected from the sun than the men. Arranging his observations according to Broca's scale, ^ Danilov obtained the following results: Number of Nos. individuals 23+33, 33, 40, 45 82 46+47,47 34 33+47,46 6 54,23 23 44 1 39 1 Total 147 The observations were recorded on the covered parts of the body, the exposed areas being somewhat darker. As far as possible the numbers have been arranged in groups. The color of the head and beard hair could be determined for only fifty-four individuals due to the fact that the natives dyed their hair red with henna. With only one exception the hair was dark in color, ranging from No. 43 to No. 48, the majority belonging to the latter category. Five individuals possessed hair color No. 43 with a reddish tinge. In one Ishtahardi the color was No. 43, the beard dark red (No. 44). Blond individuals seldom occurred, and he saw only one albino, who was treated by the natives with a certain amount of respect. 1 According to A. Hrdlicka's "Anthropometry," p. 59, footnote, Broca's scale for matching skin color was printed originally in his "Instructions generales pour les recherches anthropologiques" (Mem. Soc. d'Anthr., Paris, 1864, vol. 2; 2e ed., 16 mo., Paris, 1879); reprinted on larger scale by A. Hrdlicka in "Directions for Collecting Information and Specimens for Physical Anthropology" (Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., Pt. R. No. 39, Washington, 1904). 98 Anthropology of Iran With regard to hair quantity, 69.1 per cent had considerable body hair. Among individuals under thirty years the amount was submedium, hair on the chest appearing rarely before this age. The arms and legs were usually only slightly hirsute. Number of Hair quantity individuals % Submedium 47 30.9 Medium 98 64.5 Very heavy 7 4.6 Total 152 100.0 According to his observations the Kurds (84.2 per cent) and the Mezlegants (81.8 per cent) were the hairiest groups, while the Persians (60.9 per cent) were the least hirsute. Only after the age of thirty could the beard be called medium. At the age of fifty the natives usually had long beards. Beard quantity was recorded as absent (21.1 per cent), submedium to medium (23.9 per cent), and heavy (55.0 per cent). The mustache was generally trimmed. Small children seldom had their hair cut; in adults it was usually shaven so that only on the temples there remained some hair (zolf), painstakingly trimmed by the more fastidious young men. These locks to some degi'ee resembled Jewish whiskers, except that they were shorter. In the majority of the individuals (87.5 per cent) the hair was wavy, in 10.4 per cent straight, and in only 2.1 per cent was it curly, a feature absent among the Azerbaijanis and among the Ishtahardis. The following table gives the percentages of hair form in each of the three categories. Hair Form straight Wavy Curly Group % 7o % Azerbaijanis 20.6 79.4 Ishtahardis 100.0 Kurds 94.7 5.3 Mezlegants 10.0 85.0 5.3 Persians 14.6 82.9 2.5 Eye color was more variable than hair color. Danilov did not see any individuals with either dark or light blue eyes, and in most cases (94.7 per cent) the eyes were various shades of dark brown. In 79.5 per cent of the individuals the eye color was either No. 1 or No. 2 on Broca's scale, 13.2 per cent had brown eyes of a lighter shade, 2 per cent (3 individuals) had gray eyes, 3.3 per cent had eyes with a greenish tinge and one individual (0.7 per cent) had green eyes. A darker circle was noted on the iris of 11.3 per cent of the brown-eyed individuals. Historical References 99 Thickness of the lips was recorded in the following percentages: submedium (13.2), medium (57.9), and thick (28.9). Lip Thickness Group Submedium Medium Thick % % % Azerbaijanis 23.5 52.0 23.5 Persians 6.5 52. 2 41,3 Kurds 5.3 68.4 26.3 Ishtahardis* 12.9 68.4 22.6 Mezlegants 18.2 59.1 22.7 * These percentages add up to 103.9. Teeth* Size Condition Occlusion Group Large Medium Small Good Wear Bad E. toE. Over % % % % % % % % Kurds 5.6 72.2 22.2 47.4 36.8 15.8 77.8 22.3 Azerbaijanis 23.5 58.8 17.6 58.8 23.5 17.6 79.4 20.6 Ishtahardis 16.1 54.8 29.0 58.1 22.6 19.4 83.9 16.1 Mezlegants 18.2 40.9 40.9 31.8 40.9 27.3 86.4 13.6 Persians 31.1 66.7 2.2 67.4 17.4 15.2 91.1 8.9 Total groups. 21.3 59.3 19.3 55.9 25.7 18.4 84.7 15.3 * Since Danilov quoted the number of individuals in each category the percentages have been calculated to conform to the other tables. Observations revealed that 21.3 per cent of the individuals' had large teeth, 59.3 per cent medium, and 19.3 per cent small teeth. The Persians had the largest teeth and the Mezlegants the smallest; in the latter tribe the teeth are set far apart. The condition of the teeth was good in 55.9 per cent of the cases, some wear was recorded in 25.7 per cent, and in 18.4 per cent the teeth were carious. The teeth of the Persians deteriorate for the most part as a result [of scurvy, possibly due to the high elevation above sea level. With regard to the bite, 84.7 per cent had edge-to-edge and 15.3 per cent had a slight over-bite. No case of marked over-bite was recorded.^ With regard to subcutaneous adipose tissue the Persians generally fell into the medium classification, while many individuals among the laboring classes and in the cavalry regiments of the army were relatively thin or submedium. In the wealthy classes thick-set individuals often occurred. Musculature Group Submedium Medium Heavy Azerbaijanis 14.''47 79 .^63 5.9 Ishtahardis 19.40 80.60 Kurds 21.10 78.90 Mezlegants 27.30 63.70 9.0 Persians 34.80 65.20 In the chapter on stature Danilov used all the data which he could find in literature, so that his conclusions are based on measure- 1 The high percentage of edge-to-edge occlusion suggests that Danilov used a standard different from that now commonly employed. ^ Ot>t>0^t>'*OfC-H-»i«Ot-t-t-C-OOOOOOa> CT> 'i'lMOO-* »— 1 CO t- lO »-t tH I— t rH i2 13 : a ea.2 o H C imu mu tuat C3 X r- O OJ C3.S 3 :s sss 100 65 T-{ ■ 000'!j'Tj<^^ o e O ^- • ^ .-I -^j" -co ■ T-H .-( • ■ T-l ,-1 ,-1 TS" «5 ■ 1— I 1-( CJ Oi "3 i-H O^ (M OJ c 4- • ,— I ,— I rH ,— I (^3 ••«a< • (M »-i -^ CD CO O .2 1 •(M ■ (N i-l (N (M i-H • .-H • • . ,-( C<1 rH *3 c « i!2 ••-iC*CD(M CO ■t-KMCOOCCDt-hcD,-!-^ ItDiOOOoOO i-H |-»JeT." 158 Anthropology of Iran to any of its earlier inhabitants. The anticipatory use of 'Iran' as a geographical term which includes modern Armenia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan is excusable, but to be exact we need a designation for the pre-Aryan inhabitants. For a number of reasons 'Caspians' is an acceptable name for the aborigines and also for the plateau in its wider extent." Herzfeld and Keith suggest: "Hence, although no direct proof has yet been disclosed of crop raising in Iran anterior to the end of the Stone Age, there is strong circumstantial support for the hypoth- esis not only that the Caspians of the early fourth and fifth mil- lennia were agriculturists, but even that they were the original agriculturists, and that the knowledge of agriculture spread from the Caspian plateau over the three adjoining alluvial lands: the Indus, the Syr and Amu Darya, and the Tigris and Euphrates." In describing the features of the Aryans at Persepolis they write: "The heads and faces are rather broad, with thick, curly, black hair, large eyes, high foreheads, and prominent cheek-bones. The nose is decidedly hooked, narrow and high bridged, but with a strongly depressed tip and rather large wings, quite different from the Semitic type as represented in Babylonia, or the Armenoid type represented in Assyrian sculpture." This concludes our summary of historical references to the peoples of Iran or to their adjacent neighbors which seem to throw light on the racial origins of the modern inhabitants of Iran. The reader is referred to the special index (pp. 601-651) on this chapter. In the following chapter we shall deal with the more recent distribution of the tribes, subtribes and townsfolk throughout the country. IV. THE PEOPLES OF IRAN The preceding chapter is a compilation of data on the peoples of Iran collected by writers as early as Herodotus and ending with contemporaneous opinions. However, no recent material similar to that obtained by Curzon has been published and to bring our tribal information up to date, various official and non-official sources of the past fifteen years, which must perforce remain anonymous, are quoted here in the form of a survey of the country, province by province. Under the policy of His Imperial Majesty Riza Shah Pahlavi, the tribes are being disbanded, so that within a relatively short span of time tribal divisions will no longer exist and the possi- bility of tracing the interrelationships of these people will be lost beyond recall. It is important, therefore, to record their present distribution and estimated numerical strength. Reliable census figures on nomadic peoples are not available and so far no serious attempt of this character has been made. In presenting the material I have given a brief description of each area from the aspects of physical geography, geology, and anthropogeography, together with a list of the tribes and subtribes. The provinces have been treated in the following order: Northern and Northwestern provinces, Kashan, Luristan, Khuzistan, Isfahan, Fars, Laristan and Bandar 'Abbas, Kerman, Yezd, Khurasan, and Samnan-Damghan. The Bakhtiari garmsir, Baluchistan, and Seistan, have also been discussed separately. Northern and Northwestern Provinces This section includes the provinces of Tehran, Asterabad, Mazan- deran, Gilan, Khamseh, Kazvin, Azerbaijan, Ardelan or Kurdistan, Kermanshah, and Hamadan. East of the Sefid Rud below Manjil, located at the juncture of Gilan, Khamseh, and Kazvin provinces, stretch the great Elburz Mountains, culminating in Mount Demavend^ (18,600 feet) and throwing off spurs toward the Caspian Sea. The mountain systems can be seen clearly on the map (Frontispiece) so that it will be unnecessary to describe them further here. The Elburz Mountains give rise to countless perennial streams; those draining south onto the plateau, although vitally important for cultivation, are small, owing to the scantier rainfall on the southern slopes of the mountains. The only streams which bring ' Cf. W. T. Thomson and W. Ainsworth, 1838. 159 160 Anthropology of Iran down any volume of water through the summer are the Hableh Rud, Jajrud, and Karaj. In winter their overflow reaches Qum Lake, but in summer they are used to irrigate the plains at the foot of the hills. The majority of the Elburz streams flow northward down narrow tortuous ravines to the Caspian Sea, where they have formed fertile deltas, of which the plains of Mazanderan and Gilan are the largest. The longest river is the Haraz, with a course of 120 miles. The Qizil Uzun, which pierces the Elburz chain near Manjil, rises in the mountains of Kurdistan (Ardelan). It drains an area of 25,000 or 30,000 square miles. The area covered by the Northern and Northwestern provinces may be divided into two dissimilar sections: the Elburz Mountain region, including the Caspian littoral; and the Iranian Plateau, forming a rough triangle with its base from Mianeh through Manjil and Kazvin to Tehran. From the watershed to 9,000 feet the land consists of rock and shale overgrown in summer with Alpine plants and grass. There are also small, isolated oak trees at this altitude, and the foothills and valleys between 2,000 feet and the lowlands are covered with thick forest, usually with a dense undergrowth of box, thorns, and ferns. The swampy nature of these lowlands has been intensified artificially by rice cultivation and by the construction, chiefly in Mazanderan, of large tanks of stagnant water and reeds, dammed up during winter to serve as reservoirs in summer for rice fields not irrigated from the rivers. The soil, containing neither stone nor gravel, has no surface drainage on the large plains and when flooded becomes a morass. Wheat, barley, and lucerne are successfully cultivated throughout the area except in the Caspian lowlands, where the abundant water supply is utilized for rice, which is exported in great quantities. Millet is also raised in some districts. Peas, melons, beans, lentils, potatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, and marrows are widely grown. Fruit is plentiful. The tribesmen make wine, chiefly at Kazvin, and distill 'araq from raisins. In parts of the plateau the castor-oil plant and linseed are productive, and olives flourish in the Sefid Rud Valley. Cotton is grown in many places up to 5,000 feet. Tobacco of the tutun variety, introduced into Gilan in 1875, is cultivated more exten- sively every year. This may be a special variety although tutun is the common Arabic word for tobacco. Tea, another foreign crop in Gilan, has given good results. Gilan and Mazanderan produce silk. The Peoples of Iran 161 Honey bees are kept in many villages. The honey is consumed locally and exported in small quantities to the towns. Fine sheep are raised in all the hill districts, especially in Khamseh, the Elburz, and Mazanderan. These are of the fat-tailed variety ^V^. ^- ~VKH AMSE'^ ""'•-.^4 N D E R*",^*'' ■^O .KAZVIN, J^ "">"■% v 'TEHRAN >KERMANSHAH^ \ <3, ^ 7' \- - " ^O ^ -V ^ L K A S H A N> ^' Fig. 8. Provinces of Iran. except in Mazanderan, where the thorns would make short work of their tails. Mazanderan grazes a large number of cattle, which are of a small, sturdy, long-horned, humped breed, supplying excellent dairy produce. Water buffaloes are reared in the Caspian lowlands. No other inland sea is as well stocked with fish as the Caspian. The principal varieties are sturgeon {sag mahi), perch {sajid mahi), carp (kupur), bream (suhulu), and salmon (azad mahi). These fish swarm at the mouths of the rivers which they ascend to spawn; 162 Anthropology of Iran sturgeon and salmon in autumn and spring around the mouths of the mountain rivers, and perch, carp, etc., in winter at the mouths of the sluggish marsh streams. Climate in the Caspian provinces is characterized by: (1) a mod- erate range of temperature, 90" being a maximum rarely exceeded in summer, while frost in winter is unusual; (2) diminution in the rainfall from northwest to southeast, the annual rainfall at Resht averaging from 50 to 60 inches and at Asterabad a little under 20 inches; (3) excessive humidity and heavy dews from June to mid- September due to evaporation, the naturally swampy nature of the soil being intensified by the flooding of the rice fields at this season. On the Elburz Mountains the clouds from the Caspian, driven by the prevailing northwesterly winds, bring rains to the northern slopes. The rainfall is heaviest in the lowlands (dasht) and diminishes through the foothills {miyanband) to the dry mountains (kuh), which exhibit the general characteristics of the plateau climate except that they attract more cloud. The humidity permeates everything and everywhere. Curzon (1892a, vol. 1, p. 387) remarks that there is not "in the same parallel of latitude a more unhealthy strip of country in the world." The plain of eastern Mazanderan, owing to the lesser extent of rice fields, to the cultivation of a dry crop of cotton, and to less rain- fall, is comparatively more salubrious, but Tunakabun, on the west, becomes a lake of rice swamps and is the most unhealthy district of the whole coast strip. At the eastern end of the Caspian, snow in the lowlands is rare. In Gilan during average winters there are a few inches of snow, and sometimes heavy falls do occur. The Elburz range shelters these provinces from land winds, and the prevailing winds come from various points of the north. A hot dry wind (bad-i-garm) blows at intervals between November and early June along the Caspian lowlands. An easterly wind (dasht-i- had) brings fine weather, especially in spring, and a northwest wind (gil-i-had), blowing principally in autumn, and winter, quickly causes rain. This gil-i-had is a stormy wind, but less so than the khazri, which comes straight off the sea, chiefly between the end of November and February, and, owing to the shallowness of the Caspian, raises enormous waves in the space of one or two hours. When the wind drops, the sea calms with equal suddenness. The climate of the Iranian Plateau is not affected by the peculiar conditions of the Caspian provinces. Owing to its situation between The Peoples of Iran 163 latitudes 38° and 35° the Plateau comes under the category of sub- tropical, but actually, because of the altitude, it is for the most part cooler than this classification would imply. The general climatic conditions are as follows: (1) a small rainfall and intensely dry, clear atmosphere, which is, on the whole, stimulat- ing and healthy; (2) regular seasons, but with sudden transitions from spring to summer and from summer to autumn; (3) a great range of temperature due to its inland (continental) position; (4) a southern sun powerful at all altitudes. These characteristics pre- vail throughout, and the climate differs only in detail and degree according to the altitude. Sanitary conditions, now improving rapidly, have been extremely primitive. In 1918, famine followed by typhoid caused the deaths of about 100,000 persons in Tehran, while in Mazanderan cholera, not an endemic disease but imported from the Volga region, and typhoid decimated the population. Infant mortality in this area has been estimated at about 65 per cent. Smallpox is common, although with the increase of vaccination this disease is less frequent. Typhus and relapsing fever are most common in Khamseh and Azerbaijan. One form of the fever is carried by a large tick, Argus persicus, com- monly known as the Mianeh bug or gharibgaz ("biter of strangers"; cf. Wells, p. 505). Scabies, dysentery, diarrhea, tuberculosis, and numerous ophthalmic diseases are common. Syphilis and gonorrhea are said to affect at least 80 per cent of the population. Under the new regime, however, correction of these conditions is fortunately to be anticipated. Tropical diseases are naturally more frequent in the Caspian lowlands than on the Iranian Plateau. Anopheles breed up to be- tween 5,000 and 6,000 feet. Sandfly fever is prevalent. The "Bagh- dad boil," locally called salak,^ occurs throughout this region. Tehran is situated at an elevation of 3,810 feet above sea level on the plain to the south of the Elburz range, which is some ten miles distant. The town is near the southern end of the great gravel beds extending down from the base of the range, and is itself on a slope of some 282 feet from north to south. To the north along the foot of the mountains, which rise very steeply, and where streams come down from them, are situated numerous villages, termed col- lectively Shimran and now used as summer resorts. 1 Sometimes spelled salik; known also as the "Delhi boil." Cf. General Index and Appendix E. 164 Anthropology of Iran Mention is made of Tehran as early as 1179, but its importance dates from 1788 when Agha Mohammed Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty, selected it to supersede Isfahan or Shiraz as the capital of Persia. This was done chiefly because of its proximity to Mazanderan, the starting point from which he had conquered the country and whither he would retire if hard pressed. His choice was thus made on grounds of policy and strategy, and not with the object of selecting a site well suited for the foundation of a large city. At that time Tehran was a typical small eastern town within mud walls with a circuit of some two miles. The population was 15,000. After becoming the capital it gradually gained importance so that by 1807 its population had risen to 50,000 and by 1870 to 120,000. The present Tehran dates from 1869, when Nasir-ud-Din Shah decided to enlarge his capital and give it a more imposing appearance. The old mud walls were pulled down and replaced by a moat and earthen rampart twelve miles in circumference, which was completed in 1874. This rampart has been gradually destroyed, however, as the earth has been used for building purposes and for making bricks. A census taken by the police in 1919 gave 250,000 as the popula- tion. According to Ebtehaj the population in 1936 was 360,251. The birth rate is computed at 780 per month and the death rate at 580- Within the enceinte there were formerly 23,428 houses. Tehran and the adjacent provinces comprise no large uninhabit- able tracts like the salt deserts farther south, and compared to the whole area of Iran they are thickly populated, containing between one-quarter and one-fifth of the total population. Most villages cultivate land and also own flocks. The proportion of the population which was purely pastoral, except in the Inanlu and Baghdadi tribes of Kharaqan, was, however, small. A considerable number of highland peoples migrate to the Caspian lowlands in winter, and conversely many Mazanderanis and Gilakis (people of Gilan) migrate to the hills in summer. The distribution of population varies greatly, its density or sparsity depending on several causes, the most fundamental of which is water. RACIAL GROUPS The three main racial groups in the Northern and Northwestern provinces are as follows: (1) Persians (Farsi), who inhabit the Elburz Mountains south of the northern watershed and the plateau as far west as the Sefid The Peoples of Iran 165 Rud. The majority of the inhabitants of Tehran and Kazvin com- prise this group. The language spoken by these people varies little in dialect throughout Iran. (2) Turki, who form the entire population of Garmarud and Khalkhal in Azerbaijan, Khamseh, and of Lower Tarum, together with other sections of Kazvin province roughly west of a line drawn from Manjil to Siadehan and northwest of the Siadehan-Hamadan road. Southeast of this road and southwest of a line from Siadehan to Robat Karim, including Kharaqan, there is an admixture of Farsi, but Turki predominates. The town of Saveh is, however, wholly Farsi, although villages within a few miles of it are Turki. About one-third of the population of Kazvin and a smaller part of the popu- lation of Tehran are Turki. In the strip between the base of the Elburz and a line drawn from Siadehan to Robat Karim, i.e. inter- mediate between the Farsi and Turki areas, and in Veramin and Khar southeast of Tehran, Turkis are found mixed with Farsis in many villages. The Farsis, the original inhabitants, are more numerous. The Turki element is usually descended from tribes which have come and settled among them. The Turki peoples are the descendants of hordes from Central Asia, particularly of the Ghuzz tribes, who invaded Iran during the Seljuk period in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Seljuks were followed by the Mongols and the rule of the Mongol II Khans of Iran, who had their capitals at Maragheh, Tabriz, and Sultaniyeh^ near Zenjan. According to a strong local tradition the ancestors of the Khalej and Baiat Turks in the Saveh district came to these regions with the armies of the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane (Timur) at the end of the fourteenth century. Two theories, however, exist as to the origin of the present Turki population: that they are descended from these Turks and Mongols; and that they are the offspring of the original inhabitants on whom the invaders imposed their language. Apart from the dissimilarity in language the great difference in mental and physical characteristics between Turkis and Farsis suggests that there must at least be a considerable admixture of different blood in the former. These regions were devastated and depopulated by the invasions and probably the surviving remnants of 1 At Sultaniyeh are ruins of the mausoleum of Khudabanda, the 11 Khan, who founded this city in a.d. 1305. 166 Anthropology of Iran the original population intermarried and were absorbed with their conquerors. Turki landowners and peasantry alike are of good physique, with broader faces and heavier build than the Farsi. Turki is the only language of the northern Turki districts and no Farsi is spoken or understood except by the upper class and a small proportion of the population of Zenjan. Farther south, where the population becomes mixed, some Farsi is also understood, but it is more usual to find a Farsi with a knowledge of Turki than vice versa. The Turki of these parts differs considerably from Ottoman Turkish, and there is also some variation between the Turki of Azerbaijan and the Turki of the districts around Saveh. (3) The Mazanderanis and Gilakis in the Caspian provinces, who are separated by the northern watershed of the Elburz from the Farsi population of the Elburz valleys as well as from the Turki people of the Qizil Uzun Valley. Both Mazanderanis and Gilakis are of Persian origin and the differences between them and the Farsis are due to their isolation, behind the Elburz, and to climatic rather than racial conditions. They are of medium height, of pale, sallow complexion, in striking contrast to their dark eyes and long and abundant black hair and beards. Mazanderani and Gilaki dialects vary considerably in different districts throughout the Caspian provinces. They are akin to Farsi in origin but have now become so distinct from it as to be quite incomprehensible to a man of Ears. Owing to the constant inter- course between people of the Caspian provinces and of the plateau, the language of the adjacent Elburz or plateau districts is generally understood in the Caspian provinces. Thus, Farsi may be used from Asterabad to the Sefid Rud Valley in Gilan; but northwest of this valley, where the Gilakis come into contact with the Turki people of Tarum, Turki begins to supersede Farsi, and in Talish very little Farsi is understood. (4) In addition to the above racial groups, some Armenians and Jews and Chaldeans live in the towns, chiefly in Tehran, Kazvin, and Barfrush, and within the Farsi and the Gilaki and Mazanderani areas are found settlements of Turki, Kurdi, and Luri tribes. In northwestern Iran the tribes were not indigenous, but, with the exception of some of the Turki tribes in Kharaqan and Saveh, were transplanted in comparatively recent times from their homes in The Peoples of Iran 167 Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, or Luristan, by Shah Abbas, Nadir Shah, and Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar. For defense against the Turkomans several tribes were settled in Asterabad and in the eastern part of Mazanderan by Agha Mo- hammed Khan Qajar, at the end of the eighteenth century. The Shahsavans found in Azerbaijan and scattered throughout Khamseh and Kharaqan to Saveh, are a combination of Azerbaijan Turki tribes united by Shah Abbas in the first quarter of the seventeenth century against rebellious Qizilbash tribes residing in those regions. Similarly, the Khwajahvand Kurdi tribe in Kujur, Pul, and Kalar- dasht, in the west of Mazanderan, were sent primarily to overawe the original inhabitants. Turki, Kurdi, and Lek tribes were trans- planted by Nadir Shah to the Kazvin province within easy reach of Tehran, probably in order to break their power in their own country. We list below a few facts concerning those tribes in the Northern and Northwestern provinces which possess certain anthropological interest. Most important among these are the Shatranlu of Kalkhal, and the Inanlu and the Baghdadi Shahsavans of Kharaqan and Saveh. During the past decade many of the tribes have become settled, and some smaller tribes have been transferred to new districts. MAZANDERAN Passing from east to west the three chief tribal groups in Mazan- deran were the Abdul Maliki, Kurd-u-Turk, and Khwajahvand. These sedentary tribes have become more or less assimilated with the Mazanderanis. The Abdul Maliki and Kurd-u-Turk have lost their fine physique owing to the unhealthy climate of the Mazanderan plain. The Khwajahvand, who live in the hills, are more virile, but eat much rice and fall sick if transferred to the plateau climate and diet. (1) The Abdul Maliki (Turki) dwelt between Ashraf and Faraha- bad in the western corner of the Gulf of Asterabad. This tribe was, according to reports in 1920, divided into the following sections, each with about 130 families: Faravand, Kalvand, Shaikhvand, and Zainavand. By origin the Abdul Maliki were a Qashqai tribe settled by Agha Mohammed Khan in Shahriyar, near Tehran, about 1790, moved in the following year to Nur and Kujur, and to their present habitat to oppose Turkoman raiders about 1850. According to their tra- dition they then numbered 4,000 families, and were diminished to about 600 by the Mazanderan climate. They did not intermarry 168 Anthropology of Iran with the Mazanderanis. They grew rice, cotton, and a little wheat and barley and were said to possess many cattle and ponies. (2) The tribal sections referred to as Kurd-u-Turk were of mixed origin and were settled together by Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar to oppose Turkoman raiders. They consisted of Kurds transplanted from the Saujbulagh Mukri of Azerbaijan, of Turks from Khurasan and Veramin, and of Afghans who came via Khurasan. In 1920 the Kurd-u-Turk were engaged chiefly in cotton and rice cultivation. They owned some cattle and ponies, but not so many as did the Abdul Maliki. The Kurds, ^ who were composed of the Mudanlu and Jahanbeglu, lived in villages located mostly to the north of Sari. The Turks comprised the Usanlu, who lived near Sari, and the Giralili, who lived in the villages of Nika and Buluk of Bala Tejen, Afrar, Fandrinamarvar, Tulan Darreh, Qashgab, and Zargar. The Afghans lived near Kara Tappeh [Kara Tepe?] and Turijin. (3) The Khwajahvand (Kurdi) dwell in the district of Tunaka- bun. In 1920 there were five sub-sections in the Kalardasht plain, the Sultan Quli Khani, Kakavand, Lek, Khwajahvand, and Dilfan. They owned about 1,500 houses. In Pul and Kujur, where the tribes possessed 1,400 and 1,000 houses respectively, the Khwajahvand were divided into only three groups, the Dilfan, Kakavand and Khwajahvand. This tribe was originally brought from Garus and Kurdistan by Nadir Shah. A part returned to their native country at the end of the reign of Karim Khan Zend, and were brought back by Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar, to keep down the turbulent inhabitants of these districts. This region is one of the most productive in the Elburz and the inhabitants possess considerable stock of sheep and cattle, and also raise large crops of wheat and barley and millet, which supply all the surrounding country. GILAN The only tribes in Gilan in 1920 were the Amarlu (Kurdi) and the Khamseh-i-Tavalish, sometimes referred to as the Talish. The Jangalis were in no way tribal. 1 For additional references see B. Nikitine (pp. 73-80); "Iran League Quar- terly," vol. 4, Oct., 1933, No. 1, pp. 31-41, 147-158; V. Minorsky, "Kurdes," in "Enc. of Islam," mainly linguistic; Dhun Behramgore T. Anklesaria, "The Kurds, their History, Language, Manners and Customs, and their Country," translated by Dr. Bletch Chirguh. According to "Iran League Quarterly" the population of Kurds in Irani Kurdistan was 3,300,000; but a Commission, presided over by Count Teleki, Prime Minister of Hungary, reported to the League of Nations on July 16, 1925, that there were only 700,000 Kurds in Persia. The Peoples of Iran 169 (1) The Amarlu inhabited some 50 villages between Manjil and Pirakuh, namely, in the area enclosed by the Shah Rud, Sefid Rud, Siyah Rud, Chaka Rud, and on the east by a line from Shah Rud to Chaka Rud via Jarindeh and Pirakuh. They also occupied a few of the villages north of the Chaka Rud, adjacent to Dailiman, e.g. Diarjan, Golak. They were semi-nomadic between qishlaq villages in the side valleys north of Shah Rud and the small yailaq village of Damash and black tent camps on the ridge, dividing the Shah Rud from Siyah Rud and Chaka Rud. There were approximately 1,600 houses. The tribe was brought from Kurdistan in the early eighteenth century by Nadir Shah, who also settled a part of it at Nishapur in Khurasan. They speak the Kermanji (Kurdi) dialect, Persian, and Gilaki. The Amarlu tribe was divided as follows: Section Qishlaq Yailaq Shah Qulanlu Khurgam Dalfak Baishanlu Jarindeh Damash Shamkanlu Manjil and Loshan area Bahadulu Manjil and Loshan area Ustajanlu Sedentary at Pirakuh The Amarlu tribe constituted about two-thirds of the population, the ra'ayat the remainder. The land belonged to the II but was culti- vated by the ra'ayat, who paid one-half to two-thirds of the produce to the II as rent. The II were pastoral and owned large flocks of sheep and some cattle. They had not intermarried with the ra'ayat and had retained their original primitive features and build. (2) The Talish were partly of Turkish origin. In 1919 the follow- ing population estimate was recorded : Buluk Population Religion Talish Dulab 12,500 Sunni/Shiah Asalim 4,000 Sunni Shandarmin 6,000 Shiah Masai 6,000 Shiah Karganrud 15,000 Shiah/Sunni KHAMSEH The Khamseh tribes, all Turki, are of mixed origin but appear to have been brought from Ardebil and other parts of Azerbaijan and to have been mingled with the Qizilbash tribes, already in Kham- seh, into the Shahsavan confederation. Two decades ago a few minor tribes, Dilaqada, Karaborglu, and Rashvand, lived in Tarum, but the principal tribes of Khamseh were the Duvairan and Afshar, called Afshar Duvairan to distinguish it 170 Anthropology of Iran from the Afshars of Sain Qal'eh in Azerbaijan and of Kharaqan in Kazvin. (1) The Duvairan group, which was divided into 15 sections, Hved in the Qizil Uzun Valley from Garus above Yangikand down to Qaplan Kuh bridge. Estimates of the number of houses varied from 1,500 to 3,000 and of the number of villages from 120 to 300. The Duvairan were a strong Shahsavan tribe brought from Mughan and Ardebil by Fath Ali Shah, and settled in the fertile Qizil Uzun Valley for their qishlaq, with yailaq in the highlands west of the valley bordering on the Afshar district of Azerbaijan. (2) The Afshar (Duvairan) living between Abharrud and Garus comprised the following sections : Badirlu, Jahanshahlu, Jumelu, and Qurasanlu. They had about 1,000 houses. The Afshar tribe, said to have moved from Azerbaijan simultaneously with the Duvairan, was divided into three independent sections: (a) the Afshar of Sain Qal'eh of Azerbaijan, (6) Afshar (Duvairan) of Khamseh, and (c) Afshar in Kharaqan (Kazvin). The Afshar (Duvairan) branch was the weakest of the three, but it was said to have numbered originally 5,000 families. They used to migrate to yailaq above Sultaniyeh and farther northeast into the hills of Tarum, west of the Qizil Uzun. These yailaq were, however, appropriated as private property and the tribe became sedentary and agricultural. They also owned some camels, but fewer than formerly as the result of war and famine. KAZVIN I. The Chigini, Ghiasvand, Kakavand, Jalilavand, Bahtui, Rash- vand, and Ma'afi were grouped together by the Persian government as the "tribes of Kazvin." With the exception of the Rashvand and Ma'afi, the qishlaq of these tribes were situated in Tarum, in the Shah Rud and Qizil Uzun valleys, and their yailaq on the hills southwest of these valleys, between the Kazvin-Manjil and Kazvin- Siadehan-Sultaniyeh roads. (1) The Chigini (Luri), composed of six sections, were nomads who wandered between qishlaq in the Shah Rud Valley, and their yailaq in the hills southwest. There were from 800 to 1,000 families. They spoke Luri and Turki. The parent tribe is still in Luristan. They cultivated rice, wheat, and barley in the Shah Rud Valley, and wheat and barley in their yailaq. They also raised oxen, sheep, and goats. (2) The Ghiasvand, neighbors of the Chigini, moved from their qishlaq in the Qizil Uzun and Shah Rud valleys to their yailaq above The Peoples of Iran 171 Yuzbashi Chai. The number of their houses was estimated in 1920 at from 600 to 1,200. They were agricultural and pastoral. (3) The Kakavand were divided into two sections: the Masikhani and the Namdarkhani. They occupied villages near, and northeast of Qurveh, the boundary of Khamseh and Kazvin on the Siadehan- Zenjan road, as well as a few qishlaq villages in Tarum. There were about 350 houses. Their mother tongue is Lek, but Turki is also spoken. They grew wheat and barley, mostly unirrigated, and owned sheep and goats. A considerable number worked in Gilan during the winter. The parent tribe was near Kermanshah. (4) The Rashvand were mostly sedentary in the districts of Rudbar and Alamut. They dwelt in Dehdushab, Hasanabad, Shahristan, Ma'dabad, Duralhaq, Chirish Darreh, and other villages in Rudbar, and in Badasht, Duzdaksar, Mahmudabad, Shutur Khan, Madan, Haranak, Safiddar, and Avaj in Alamut. There were about 150 houses in Alamut and about 400 in Rudbar. In the former district they spoke Turki, in the latter Kermanji. The tribe is said to have migrated from Balkh and Bukhara at the end of the seventeenth century. Another branch was settled in Khurasan. (5) The Ma'afi had about 600 houses in the vicinity of the Kazvin-Tehran road. II. The Inanlu and Baghdadi nomad Shahsavan are the largest tribes in the districts of Kharaqan and Saveh. Both are Turki and were introduced into these regions at the end of the eighteenth cen- tury. The Inanlu are said to have been moved from the Mughan plain by Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar. The Baghdadi are believed to have migrated from Iran during the Safavid period and settled near Baghdad, whence they returned to Shiraz during the reign of Nadir Shah, Under Karim Khan Zend they had no fixed abode until they joined Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar, who settled them in their present habitat. The Inanlu tribe has consisted of two main sections, the Yangijak and Guqbar, together comprising 5,000 to 6,000 families. Their qishlaq were around Gudagh and the fort of Mohammed Ali Khan near the Tehran-Qum road, and the adjacent districts of Saujbulagh (Tehran), Zarand (Saveh), and Zahrah (Kazvin), while their yailaq were in Kharaqan, especially near Gamishlu in the Qutalu district. The 4,000 to 6,000 families of Baghdadi Shahsavan spent the summer in Kharaqan and Khalajistan (Hamadan) as far as the borders of Khamseh, and the winter in the vicinity of the Tehran- 172 Anthropology of Iran Qum-Sultanabad and Tehran-Saveh roads. In 1920 the Baghdadis embraced two sections, Lek and Arikhlu, 2,050 and 1,770 families, respectively. The Leks included several subsections, which are given here with the numbers of their families (in parentheses): Kusehlar (500), Yari- janlu (400), Karaquyunlu (350), Yaramishlu (300), Aliqurtlu (200), Ahmadlu (200), and Satlu, Qutulu, and Daulatvand (100). The Arikhlu were made up of 16 subsections, the largest of which was the Kalavand with 630 families, divided into Bazlu, Buruchilu, Iskandarlu, Jalallu, Muhammadlu, Musulu, Shaikhlar, and Zaghal. Another subsection of the Arikhlu was the Qasimlu, subdivided into Hajilu, Alamardashlu, and Zairallu — used to number 500 families but the majority finally settled in \dllages. The remaining sub- sections with the numbers of their families were: Alvarlu with the Karunlu (100); Atakbasanlu (10); Dugar (60); Gharibalklu (30); Hasanlu (30); Husain Khanlu (200); Khadarlu (50); Medhilu (30); Mehrablu (30); Nilghaz (70); Qarallu (50); Sulduz (250); and Ziliflu (30). AZERBAIJAN The tribes of Khalkhal in Azerbaijan comprised in 1920 the Shatranlu and the Quluqujanlu. The latter possessed about 150 houses. The Shatranlu (2,000 families) occupy a narrow strip of land a few miles north of the Qizil Uzun and about 75 miles long from Sanjabad eastward to the Arpachai and Misdaghi hills. Their winter quarters are villages in the valleys and in summer they camp in the hills above them. At one time they trespassed beyond their original limits and spread over most of the four districts of Khalkhal north of the Qizil Uzun. The Shatranlu are of Kui'di origin, but they speak Turki; although they are not Shahsavan, they are neighbors and allied to them. For further information on Azerbaijan see Curzon, Sykes, Wilson, and also Price (1913) and Minorsky (1932). Kashan Ebtehaj (pp. 299-300) writes that the town of Kashan, residence of the Governor of the regions of Kashan and Natanz, is situated at an elevation of 3,707 feet, and has a population of 39,994. The famous tile work known as "Kashi" originated here. Natanz contains about 3,000 persons. Ardistan, at an elevation of 4,399 feet, has a population of about 4,000. The Peoples of Iran 173 Since no recent additional information regarding the population of this province is available, reference must be made to Curzon, Sykes, Wilson, and other authorities. LURISTAN 1 Luristan is considered by Lurs to comprise three main divisions: Pusht-i-Kuh, Pish-i-Kuh, and Bala Girieh, corresponding to the main tribal divisions. They are not really geographical entities, but it is convenient so to describe them, the boundaries of the areas belong- ing to these tribal divisions being fairly well defined. Pusht-i-Kuh extends in a northwestward and southeastward line along the western border of Luristan. It is separated from Pish-i- Kuh (on the east) by the ridge of mountains known as Kabir Kuh. Pish-i-Kuh is bordered on the northeast and east by the Kashgan Rud and the lands occupied by the Bairanawand (of the Bala Girieh). Generally speaking, the Bala Girieh country includes the rest of eastern Luristan. Each of the three dixnsions has its own typical scenery; no gen- eralization with regard to Luristan as a whole is possible. In Pusht-i-Kuh, the hills, which rise in tier upon tier, parallel to each other, are lower and less steep than elsewhere in Luristan; gypsums and sandstones predominate. The limestone hills are iso- lated folds only, the intervening country being filled with shapeless masses of gypsum, gray in color, contrasting strongly with the red tint of the sandstones. Its rivers are for the most part almost unpotable in summer, and its drainage is toward the Mesopotamian [Iraq] plain. It is not well wooded, and the grazing is not as good as in northern Luristan. In Pish-i-Kuh the sandstones and gypsums disappear, being seldom met north of the Saimarreh Valley; south and east of a line drawn from Tarhan to Madian Rud gaunt limestone ranges almost devoid of wood, take their place. These ranges run uniformly northwest and southeast, separated by broad grassy valleys. They attain about 6,000 feet in height. A feature of the district is the extent and fertility of the intervening plains, such as Kuh-i-Dasht, Rumishgan, Hulilan, and Tarhan, which could support a large population. The Bala Girieh (high mountains) district, as the name indicates, is the most rugged part of Luristan. The limestone ridges are higher and steeper than those of the Kashgan, while the valleys between ' Section condensed from notes by A. T. Wilson, "Luristan," Simla, 1912, which are referred to here by kind permission of Sir Arnold T. Wilson. 174 Anthropology of Iran are narrower, and filled with gypsum or sandstone hills, instead of being flat. This district is better watered, and the portion traversed by a line drawn straight from Khurramabad to Dizful is the most elevated tract in Luristan, with snow always visible upon its higher peaks. The Bala Girieh territory south of Khurramabad and north of the Dalich range is well wooded with dwarf oak (balut). The extremes of heat and cold are met with in Luristan, from which fact arose the nomadic habits of its people. The valley of the Saimarreh is almost as hot as Khuzistan in summer, and its climate bears a general resemblance to that of the Bakhtiari garmsir (p. 200). The higher elevations in Luristan are, however, cooler, and Khurram- abad is seldom unpleasantly hot. Nevertheless cypresses grow in its gardens as at Shiraz. This tree is not to be found in any other town of southwestern Iran, as it cannot withstand very severe cold. Snow lies on the Khurramabad plain for from twenty to forty days as a rule, but in 1911 it covered the gi'ound for about ten weeks. In March the snow line is at 5,000 feet, in April at 6,000 feet, in May at 7,000 feet. The winter season in Luristan is a time of hibernation. During two months or more the people stay in their houses. The cattle are stabled, fodder for four or five months being collected during the summer. Wheat is generally sown in the autumn, and comes up only after the snow has melted. Although the more fertile of the two, Luristan is more scantily populated than the Bakhtiari country. The caravan tracks across it are easier than any others leading from the gulf to central Iran except, perhaps, those via Bandar 'Abbas and Shiraz. The three great divisions of Luristan may conveniently be adopted in discussing the tribes of the province. Pusht-i-Kuh was occupied by Faili Lurs, with a sprinkling of Kurd, Dinarwand, and Sagwand tribes who settled here at various times and intermarried with the original inhabitants. Pish-i-Kuh has been, from time immemo- rial, the abode of the Silsileh and Dilfan divisions, so named, it is said, from two brothers. According to Sir Arnold Wilson, they are mostly Leks, but there is a considerable number of Lurs in the east- ern part of the district, speaking a distinct dialect, although differing in no other way from their Lek neighbors. The Bala Girieh tribes are all Lurs. They acknowledge no single leader or leaders and are perpetually at feud with each other. The urban population of Khur- ramabad and Burujird is mainly Lur, with a sprinkling of Jewish and Persian merchants. The Peoples of Iran 175 No Turki tribes are to be found in the province, and the "Arab Gau Mish" tribes of the Bakhtiari country have no counterpart in Luristan.i Certain tribes, however, for example, the Sagwand, trace their descent to Arab immigrants. Kurd tribes, such as the Kalhur, hve on the borders of the province, but are subject to the Kermanshah government and are therefore excluded from consid- eration here. The boundary between Lurs and Leks is now only linguistic; the Lurs are probably Aryans by descent and of aboriginal stock. It is fairly certain that they have lived a nomadic life for many centuries. The tribes of Elam "set at nought the authority of the Medes and Persians; they defied Alexander and provoked Antio- chus" (Curzon, 1892a, vol. 2, p. 285); but there is ample evidence that until the Middle Ages Luristan was also occupied by a consid- erable sedentary population, to which the rivers and numerous mounds west of the Kashgan, and in the valley of the Saimarreh, bear witness. Morier considered the Leks as a nomadic tribe, dispersed through- out Iran, whose chief seats were near Kazvin, and in the provinces of Fars and Mazanderan. He held further that it was a large tribe, subdi\'ided into many families, and was of Persian descent. Rabino suggested that the Dilfan, Silsileh, and Bairanawand might be Leks.- The Ali Illahi sect had many adherents among Leks and Kurds; a detailed account of their beliefs and rites will be found in Wilson's "Gazetteer." The Silsileh and Dilfan were largely Ali Illahis originally, but have gradually become Shiahs by profession. Among the Bala Girieh the sight of a man saying his prayers is uncommon, and the older men have no idea of the formulae of prayer, or of the elements of their Shiah faith, although an oath on the Koran is considered binding. The Lurs lived in black goat-hair tents of indifferent construction, usually without sidewalls, brushwood being used instead. Unlike Arabs, who tended to congregate in large camps, they pitched their tents in widely scattered groups of three or four, each petty chief or group of families having a separate encampment. In early summer they deserted their tents for booths made from the branches of trees. 1 It must be remembered that these data were published in 1912. " Cf. Rabino, 1916, p. 6. 176 Anthropology of Iran tribes of luristan ' Amla. — Formerly known as "Amla Karim Khan," this small, isolated Lur clan of Pusht-i-Kuh originally lived in a few walled villages southwest of Dizful. Their lands are irrigated by the Harmushi and Dehdari canals from the Karkheh River. Bahanvand. — This tribe, of more than 1,000 families, is said to have been controlled by Mir Abbas Khan, who with his brother Mir Ali Khan at one time divided the authority of the Dirakwand. Eventually the Mirs v/ere ousted from the various sections of Dirakwand, but they succeeded in forming separate tribes called the Mir Abbas Khani (Baharwand Mirs) and the Mir Ali Khani (Qalawand Mirs). Excluding the Baharwand Mirs, the only divisions we have to consider are the Kadkhuda's section, and the Najaftan. The latter were a small and weak clan, living apart from the main body of the tribe, wintering near Qal'eh Husaniyeh, spending the summer on the northern slopes of Kuh-i-Gird, and moving between these points by a route crossing the eastern end of the Chinara range and the Kuh-i-Kargishan. They intermarried with the Qalawand Mirs. In winter the tents of the Baharwand could be found anywhere from the Ab-i-Zal bridge to within a few miles of Dizful on the western side of the Bala Rud. In summer they lived on the slopes of Kuh-i-Haft Pahlu and Bawwi, and in the valley of the Shurab, Kuh-i-Taf, Darreh-i-Nassab, Tang-i-Bahram Rush, and Ab-i-Siwak. Their migrations generally followed the Kialan route, but when on bad terms with the Mirs they went via Chul. Wheat and barley were sown near Ab-i-Lailum and Ab-i-Fani, in the Darreh-i-Nassab, and elsewhere near their summer quarters. This tribe was the strongest of the Dirakwand sections, with large flocks, many mares and a number of mules. Baharwand Mirs. — These people were known as "Aulad-i-Mir Abbas Khan and dependents." Edmonds (1922, pp. 344, 347) has some interesting notes on this group which he calls Mir Abbas Khani. Bairanawand. — Generally classed as of the Bala Girieh division, but described by Rabino as Leks, the Bairanawand were the strongest of the tribes of Luristan, numbering at least 10,000 families. They inhabited the plains of Alishtar and Khaweh, and the Kuh-i-Chehil 1 This list is based on the excellent preliminary investigations of Sir Arnold Wilson. Reference has also been made to the lists compiled by Rabino (1916) and Edmonds (1922). It must, of course, be understood that in compiling data of this character oral tradition will account for many variations and discrepancies. The Peoples of Iran 177 Nabalighan and Garru in summer. A proportion, varying from year to year, migrated to Pusht-i-Kuh in the autumn, moxing usually by way of Kal-i-Hasar, Chul, and Pul-i-Tang. They are said to be refugees of the last century, from Mosul. Wilson subdivides Bairanawand: Astan Marz, Aulad-i-Ali- Mahmud, Aulad-i-As'ad Khan, Chakalwand Tari, Chalabi, Char- marang, Daliran, Farrash, Garr, Jujehwand, Mai As'ad, Mattash, Mihrab, Mustafawand, Pirdadeh, Sabz 'Ali, Shahun, Shahvardi, Shams, Yar Ahmad, and Zain 'Ali. Bajulwand. — Little is known about this tribe. It was usually classed as Bala Girieh, but became sedentary in the neighborhood of Chalanchulan and identified itself with the Yar Ahmadi of Silakhur (q.v.). Bala Girieh. — This term, which signifies "those that live in the high mountains," was applied to the following nomad tribes living between the Kashgan and Diz rivers: Bairanawand, Chigini, Dirak- wand, Judeki, Papi, and Sagwand, some of which are discussed here under separate tribal headings. They were homogeneous to the extent that they never accepted the rule of any individual, but the Sagwand and Bairanawand were quite separate from the rest of the group. The Bala Girieh were estimated in 1836 by Rawlinson at 6,000 families. Layard in 1846 made the same estimate, and, if the Bairanawand be excluded, as was done by both authorities, the figure in 1912 was the same, so far as it was possible to determine. The Saki tribe, formerly included in this group, was extinct. The Makan 'Ali tribe was, in 1912, unknown; it was merged in the Sagwand many years before. The Bajulwand tribe had likewise ceased to be an independent unit. Balawand. — This group is sometimes classed as Dilfan. Tribal divisions are Balawand and Kaushwand. Plowden gave their number at 1,000 families. Chigini. — These tribesmen lived between Khurramabad and the Kashgan River at the foot of Kuh-i-Safid. Their principal divisions were Fathullahi, Hajiha, Hatim Khani, and Tahmasp Khani. The Hatim Khani section included the extinct Mirzawand tribe. The divisions of Tahmasp Khani section were Fathullah Juma't Karim, Haji, Hatimwand, Sabzwar Budaq, Shakarwand, and Waiskareh. Those of the Hatim Khani section were Darwish, Hammam, Husi- wand, Jawwar, Mirzawand, and Sharaf. They were said to number 2,000 families.! 1 Wilson's list is followed in the above discussion of the Chigini. Cf. Edmonds (1922), p. 344, where a somewhat different grouping is given. 178 Anthropology of Iran Dalwa7id. — Once allied with Bairanawand, they lived in the Hurud Valley throughout the year, and were more or less sedentary. Dilfan. — This powerful confederacy consisted of many separate tribes: Ali, Aulad Kubad, Balawand (which was sometimes excluded), Bawari, Bijawand, Chari, Itiawand, Kakawand, Kalayin, Khairghu- 1am, Mumianwand ("Mir Beg"), Nur Ali, and Padarwand. These tribes were nomadic for the most part, but their territory was continuous, extending from the borders of Kermanshah to the Saimarreh and Kashgan, and the migrations of these groups were therefore different from those, for example, of the Sagwand. Dirakwand. — This name was given to a congeries of tribes in- habiting the mountains between Khurramabad and Dizful, extend- ing on the east to the vicinity of Ab-i-Diz, which they were precluded, however, from reaching by the intervening Papi tribe, and on the west to the neighborhood of the main caravan track, which from Badamak to Dadabad ran through territory claimed by the Judeki. The Dirakwand is an important tribe of the Bala Girieh group. Wilson in 1912 listed the following sections: Baharwand, Baharwand Mirs, Kurd Aliwand, Kurki, Mir Aliwand, Mirzawand, Mungari, Qalawand, Qalawand, or Mungarreh, Mirs, and Rizawand. The Zainawand, who lived in Pusht-i-Kuh near Saimarreh fort, were of Dirakwand stock. The strength of the true Dirakwand was small, probably not over 3,000 men, but there was a strong foreign element of Sagwand, Hasanawand, and Bairanawand. Wilson thought that they had probably kept at about this figure for many years. Faili. — Writers have claimed that this term applies to all Lurs of Luristan (Lur-i-Kuchak) but Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, p. 275) remarks that "it has become restricted in popular usage to Pusht-i- Kuh, the Failis proper constituting the bulk of the population in that district." The Vali of Pusht-i-Kuh used to be known in Khuzi- stan as "The Faili" or else by the cognomen, which has been bestowed upon his family by his Arab neighbors, Abu Qadareh ("father of the sword"). Khurramabad is still known officially and by tradition as "Khurramabad-i-Faili," a relic of the days when his forbear Hussain Khan, Chief of the Faili tribe, was placed by Shah Abbas in the position formerly held by Shah Wardi Khan, and granted the title of Vali in exchange for that of Atabeg, with almost unlimited powers in Luristan. With the diminution of the power of his suc- cessors, now restricted to the Pusht-i-Kuh district, the name Faili has been similarly limited. The Peoples of Iran 179 Falak-ud-Din. — This group, a small and unimportant tribe of the Silsileh, comprised the two divisions Luramir and Tajamir, Hasanawand. — This large nomad tribe gradually diminished in numbers until in 1912 it had an estimated strength of only 3,000 families. Their winter quarters were at Jaidar and Gamishan on the Saimarreh. They claimed the land to the north and east of the Kashgan River, but the Dirakwand and Judeki steadily encroached on their eastern border. In summer they went up to the heights of Alishtar. Dependent tribes of the Hasanawand included: Baba Sanim, Bastan, Daulatshah, Faulad, Gurjai, Huz Abdul AH, Huz Khudai, Jawanmand, Kakulwand, Khamseh, Mohammed Rizeh, Rahman- shah, Salar, and Zuhabi (Wilson, 1912). Judeki. — Sometimes said to be of Bajulwand stock, they occupied the lands between the Kashgan and the main Dizful-Khurramabad caravan route, claiming Jaidar, Badamak, Chimashk, and Raikhan as their own, but their headquarters were at Chul-i-Hul. Their habits were similar to those of the Dirakwand. They wintered in Jaidar. Kakawand. — They lived near Harsin on the border of the prov- ince, and were nom.inally part of the Dilfan, numbering some 800 families. Their winter quarters lay between Pul-i-Tang and Ab-i- Fani and in Pusht-i-Kuh near the southeastern end of the Kabir Kuh, while summer quarters were at Kurageh and on the Bawwi Plateau. They migrated by the same routes as the Baharwand, whom they resembled closely. Lur-i-Buzurg. — This term, like Lur-i-Kuchak, is now almost extinct. It was formerly used to denote the country inhabited by Lurs beyond the boundaries of Luristan, and included in consequence the Bakhtiari country and the whole of Pars. It was never an administrative province, the Bakhtiari Haft Lang in 1841 being under Burujird, the Kuhgalu under Behbehan, and the Qashqai under the Governor-General of Pars at Shiraz. Lur-i-Kuchak. — This term, now obsolete, denoted the province of Luristan. It was formerly divided into Gulak, which included Amla and Bala Girieh, and Selewerzi, which included Dilfan and Silsileh, but these divisions are now unknown. It signified also a numerous but little-known tribe living east of Khurramabad, between the Dirakwand country and the Diz. They were nomadic, but as a tribe never left this district, which is well 180 Anthropology of Iran watered and abundantly wooded . Their habitations were black tents, characteristic of the nomad. Qaid Rahmat (Kaid Rahmat). — A small tribe allied to the Bairanawand, these people inhabited the upper waters of the Hurud. Qalawand. — Probably originally Qilabwand. They numbered about 1,000 families. In winter they extended from the Qilab district to within a few miles of Dizful, keeping to the east of the Bala Rud. In summer they inhabited the valleys and slopes of Kuh-i-Haft Pahlu, Kuh Asiabad, Tiri Kuh; they seldom visited Khurramabad. They cultivated a considerable area of good land in the Qilab district, and had small portions of irrigated land under cultivation at the headwaters of the Zal. Qalawand Mirs. — Also known as Mirha-i-Mungarreh and the Aulad-i-Mir Ali Khan, the Qalawand Mirs were formerly the chiefs of the Qalawand, who were exiled many years ago. They lived in the Mungarreh and Kal Ispid ranges, near the headwaters of the Zal. Edmonds (1922, pp. 349-356) wrote in detail of his visit to the Qalawand Mirs (Mir Ali Khani). Quliwand. — A once numerous tribe of the Silsileh. These families formerly wintered in the Saimarreh Valley, but later they either remained in Alishtar, or moved only as far south as the Kuh-i-Dasht. Razani. — The Razani were sometimes classed as Bajulwand, and of Bala Girieh origin. They inhabited three villages near Razan on the Khurramabad-Burujird main road. Sagwand (Rahim Khani). — The Sagwand were a typical tribe of Lur nomads. A portion of the tribe remained sometimes in the neighborhood of Sanjar during the whole summer, camping on the banks of the Shur or Karkheh. Occasionally they moved to Salihabad for the summer. The group was divided into two sections, the Rahim Khani and Ali Khani. The latter after about 1900 remained in the high country. The former were said to number about 500 families. Sagwand (Ali Khani). — Little is seen of this tribe, which for many years remained in the hills near Khurramabad, and in the Abistan plain east of Kurageh; it was numerically less strong than the Papi, but more united. Silsileh. — This name was given to an aggregation of tribes similar to that called Dilfan. Three groups were commonly recognized in this confederacy: (1) Hasanawand, and Daulatshah and Khamseh The Peoples of Iran 181 of Hasanawand extraction; (2) Yusufwand and Quliwand (Kuli- wand); and (3) Karm 'Ali and Falak-ud-Din, Other tribes were the Gaukush, Amir, and Mumin. Tarhan. — This tribe was subdivided as follows: Amrai, Azad- bakhsh Ainawand, Bazwand, Garmai, Garrawand Kurd Ali wand, Kuloni Kushki, Padarwand, Ramawand, Rumiyani, Siri, and Ziruni. Yar Ahmadi. — This tribe was sedentary and lived in Silakhur. Yusufwand. — This tribe of the Silsileh group had summer quarters in Alishtar and Kuh-i-Garru. In winter they generally went south to the Kashgan, keeping, however, north of Jaidar. They were once a powerful tribe, but were later much dispersed, and their lands were taken by the Kakawand section of the Dilfan. Zainawand. — In Pusht-i-Kuh. A recapitulation of this list of Luristan tribes gives a total of 12,500 individuals. If the population of Khurramabad (15,000) and Burujird (30,000) be added, the approximate total in 1920 for Luristan and Burujird was 250,000. This is almost exactly the estimated population under the control of the Bakhtiari Khans at the same date. The figure corresponds roughly with that of Major Bell, who estimated the Faili Lurs at 210,000 and the whole population south of the Isfahan-Burujird line at 700,000. A million would probably be nearer the mark, if the population of Khuzistan and Fars were included (cf. Durand, Lorimer [1907], and Sawyer). NOTES ON TRIBES OF LURISTAN, 1928-32 Since Sir Arnold Wilson's notes on Luristan were made some twenty-five years ago, I attempted to obtain more recent informa- tion on the tribes of this region, which is of both archaeological and anthropological interest. During the years 1928-32 Mr. Arthur W. Du Bois prepared a memorandum on the Lurs, notes from which he has very kindly allowed me to give here. Although today the term "Lur" applies to those Lur tribes which live largely within the boundaries of Luristan, there are two smaller Lur tribes living in Fars, west and southwest of Shiraz, the Mamas- sani and the Kuhgalus. Also, the Bakhtiari tribes (whose territory is a sort of enclave between Luristan, Isfahan, and Fars) are con- sidered ethnographically to be Lurs.^ The Lurs are said to be related to the Kurds who inhabit the region to the north of Luristan. For 1 See footnote, p. 200. 182 Anthropology of Iran practical purposes the dividing line between Kurdistan and Luristan may be considered as the motor road from Qasr-i-Shirin on the Iraq border to Hamadan. Politically, the term Luristan is restricted to that portion of Luristan which is within the jurisdiction of the Governor of Luristan, i.e. the Pish-i-Kuh region, centering about the town of Khurramabad. The Pusht-i-Kuh region is under the influence of the Vali of Pusht-i- Kuh, and is not considered as part of the area under the jurisdiction of the Governor at Khurramabad. The origin of the Lurs remains a mystery. They are considered to be part of the original Iranian stock that migrated from the regions to the east of the Caspian Sea during the first half of the first millennium B.C. They have, however, a strong admixture of Arabic blood, due to infiltration of Arab tribes from the contiguous regions of Khuzistan in the south and Iraq in the west. With the exception of a small, settled fraction, the Lurs are nomadic.^ They occupy themselves principally with the raising of livestock, including mules, sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. Although they are indifferent agriculturalists, they do cultivate land in the vicinity of their summer camps. They also gather gums and burn charcoal, both of which they sell advantageously. The population of Luristan is variously estimated at from 180,000 to 450,000. The former military commiander of Luristan (about 1927-30), General Ahmed Kahn S^pahbod, gave the number as Pish-i-Kuh Lurs, 250,000, and Pusht-i-Kuh, 100,000. Both figures may be too high. The Pish-i-Kuh Lurs are divided into the Silsileh, Dilfan, Bala Girieh, and Tehranis. (1) The Silsileh, said to be of Arab origin, occupy the region north of the Khurramabad centering about the Alishtar plain. Their subdivisions are Hasanawand, Yusufwand, and Quliwand (Kuliwand), comprising in all about 35,000 people. The nomad element winters as far south as the Saimarreh River. (2) The Dilfan, also reported to be of Arab origin, occupy the region near Nehavend toward Kermanshah, the Kara Su, and Madian Rud. The Dilfan, estimated at 32,000, are subdivided into the following tribes: Kakawand, Itiawand, and Mumianwand. (3) The Bala Girieh consist of eight important tribes and a few lesser tribes. They occupy the region east and south of Khurrama- ' The present policy of the Shah is to restrict pastoral nomadism to the minimum. The Peoples of Iran 183 bad. Generally speaking, their territory is defined by the Burujird, Sezar Rud, and Abi-i-Diz valleys in the east, the plains of Khuzistan in the south, the Kabir Kuh and Kashgan Rud in the west, and the valleys immediately north of Khurramabad in the north. The popu- lation is about 70,000. The principal tribes of the Bala Girieh are Qaid Rahmat, Dal- wand, Bairanawand, Sagwand, Tulabi, Papi, Judeki, and Dirak- wand. Smaller branches are Gurz Gurzi, Gallandas, Rumiani, and Ruh Ruk. About 1,000 Qaid Rahmat own villages in the region south and east of Burujird. The Dalwand (population 5,000) occupy Zagheh, some thirty-five miles east of Khurramabad along the Khurramabad- Burujird highway. The Bairanawand, probably the most numer- ous and one of the most powerful of the Lur tribes, has its summer quarters near Khurramabad. In winter they migrate to the Saimar- reh and the Kabir Kuh. The Bairanawand are estimated at more than 25,000. About 5,000 tribesmen have settled recently in the neighborhood of Kazvin, Veramin, and Khar. During the reign of Nadir Shah they were removed en bloc to the neighborhood of Shiraz, from which they soon escaped and made their way back to Luristan. The Sagwand (10,000) have their summer grounds about thirty miles east of Khurramabad, centering about Abistan. They winter in the plains as far south as Dizful and Shush. Considered wealthy, they are especially known for their mule-breeding. The Tulabi (popu- lation about 1,000) occupy villages in the plain of Khurramabad. The Papi, whose number is approximately 2,500, summer in the mountains west of the Sezar Rud, some forty miles east of Khur- ramabad, and winter in the valleys to the south, along tributaries of the Ab-i-Diz. The Judeki comprise a population of 3,500 south of Khurramabad and the Kashgan Valley. The Dirakwand occupy the mountain region south of Khurrama- bad River, east of the Kashgan, as far south as the Saimarreh River and the Ab-i-Zal, and east to the Papi country. Their number is probably between 8,000 and 10,000. The Dirakwand are divided into two principal branches, the Baharwand and Qalawand. The Baharwand are composed of thirteen clans, the Qalawand of twelve clans, of which the Mirzawand, living north of the Ab-i-Zab, are probably the best known. Scattered minor tribes, the Gurz Gurzi, 184 Anthropology of Iran Gallandas, Rumiani, and Ruh Ruk are unimportant, including but some 2,000 persons. (4) The Tehranis (Tarhan), composed of Ghigini, Amrati, Suri, Charari, Bavali, and Sinjabi, totaling about 11,000, inhabit principally the region west of Khurramabad and the Kashgan River south to the Saimarreh. The tribes of the Pusht-i-Kuh, in southwestern Luristan, are nomads and are known as the Faili Lurs. They own a sort of loose allegiance to the Vali of Pusht-i-Kuh. Numbering some 50,000 to 60,000 persons, they are divided as follows: Kurds, 20,000; Mabaki, 25,000; dependencies, 5,000; and Arabs. It is recorded that the Achaemenians (circa 550-330 B.C.) paid tribute to the Lurs. In the time of Shah Abbas the Great (1587- 1629) the Government was forced to send strong armed forces to subdue the country. Since that conquest Khurramabad has been the nominal seat of Government of the Pish-i-Kuh region. Until the reign of Riza Shah Pahlavi, Luristan was virtually independent of the central authorities. Khuzistan^ Khuzistan, or Arabistan, was a part of the Biblical Elam and corresponds largely to the ancient Susiana. In area the province covers approximately 16,000 square miles. For the most part the country is flat, being broken in one place only by a range of hills running west-northwest, which the Karun River pierces at right angles near Ahwaz. These red sandstone hills rise to 200 feet, the entire length of the range being about thirty miles. The level open plains are mostly barren and thinly sprinkled with desert scrub, although some portions of it are grassy and in spring bear patches of wheat and barley. On the southeast the Fallahiyeh and Ma'shur districts in winter become salt swamps, while on the west the neigh- borhood of Hawizeh becomes a marsh. Date trees (cf. Dowson) line the banks of the Shatt al-Arab, of the upper Bahmanshir, and the Karun to twenty miles above Mohammerah; elsewhere there are no trees, only belts of willows, tamarisk, and other bushes fringing the banks of the rivers. The only permanent rivers are the Ab-i-Gargar and the Shatait, branches of the Karun, which alone is navigable (cf. Selby); the Ab-i-Diz with its tributaries; and the Karkheh. The Jarrahi River ' Since no very recent information concerning the tribes and population of Khuzistan is available, the author has consulted records of the last two or three decades and selected therefrom data which are offered here for comparative study. The Peoples of Iran 185 enters the Persian Gulf at its extreme northerly point by the Khor Vasta. About twenty miles down the coast the Hindian River also flows south-southwesterly into the Gulf. The Karun and Jarrahi rivers run between steep banks. The altitude of Khuzistan ranges from sea level on the coast of the Persian Gulf to 1,200 feet on the Kuh-i-Fadalak sandstone ridge. In general the climate is healthful, although it varies with the altitude or proximity to the Persian Gulf. The winter, which may be reckoned from the beginning of November to the end of February, is ideal. Rain falls in December and continues intermittently until the end of March. Usually there is a break in February, which divides the rainy season into first and second rains so far as the husbandman is concerned. The hottest months of the year are June, July, and August. As a rule the temperature reaches its highest point in July, that rarely being much above 120°, while at night it will drop as low as 80°. The prevailing wind, for the greater part of the year from the northwest, is moderately cool until June, after which it becomes hot by day but keeps down the temperature by night. The average annual rainfall is from 12 to 15 inches. In 1935 the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company^ recorded in inches the following figures: Masjid-i-Sulaiman, 26.04; Abadan, 9.19; and Naft Khaneh, 8.54. Average Temperatures in Abadan (1935) {In Degrees Fahrenheit) RECORDED BY REFINERY CHEMICAL LABORATORY STAFF Shade Record ^ * s Average Average Highest and Average Average Monthly dry wet lowest shade Month maximum minimum mean bulb bulb temperatures January 63.7 43.7 53.7 51.9 48.1 February 66.3 48.4 57.4 56.5 52.1 March 81.5 57.5 69.5 61.5 58.4 April 86.9 63.2 75.1 75.9 61.1 May 99.9 74.3 87.1 86.9 69.4 H. 122.0 June 110.1 79.8 94.9 98.4 70.1 July 113.9 82.9 98.4 98.1 70.1 August 113.5 83.3 98.4 96.2 73.8 L. 32.0 September 110.3 75.2 92.8 92.7 70.4 October 98.4 67.2 82.8 82.5 65.5 November 78.2 57.5 67.9 66.9 60.5 December 51.9 66.5 59.2 57.6 55.5 1 See Annual Report, p. 80, London, 1936. Through the kindness of Lord Cadman, Colonel J. B. Dalzell Hunter, and Colonel Hall of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company these figures are quoted here. In my files I have meteorological data for parts of 1936 and 1937. 186 Anthropology of Iran As a result of the medical work done by the Anglo-Iranian medical officers diseases of part of this province have been studied in considerable detail. Their reports on the monthly incidence of malaria and their progress in the development of oiling measures against anopheline larvae are valuable. In this publication there is no need to add further details but rather to refer the reader to these important sources of medical information (see Appendix E) , Dizful in northern Khuzistan is situated on the left bank of the Ab-i-Diz. The site is elevated and somewhat uneven, falling away on the river face in conglomerate cliffs about 100 feet high, the base of which is washed by the river when in flood. The population has been estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000. It has absorbed many heterogeneous elements and some of the groups bear names indicative of foreign origin. They have, nevertheless, become fused in one common community and homogeneity of language, customs, and dress and may be said to constitute a type of their own. For many years no Lurs, Kurds, or Arabs resided within the town. The only religion was the Shiah faith. Shushtar lies at the northern extremity of the Miyanab in the angle formed by the division of the Karun River into its branches, the Shatait and Gargar. The majority of the inhabitants, who have numbered about 20,000, are of an indigenous type, commonly supposed to be Assyrian, but of mixed origin and generally called Shushtaris. They speak a Persian patois resembling but distinguish- able from that of the Dizfulis. They are Shiahs. The town itself contains no Arabs but there are a few Bakhtiaris. Bandar Nasiri, on the left bank of the Karun immediately below the Ahwaz rapids, is about one mile from Ahwaz town. The post- war population, estimated at 7,000, consists of Shushtaris, Isfahanis, Dizfulis, Bushiris, Arabs, and Lurs. Ahwaz itself, for many years no more than a large village of some 1,000 persons, is the older of the two towns and the district is named after it; but owing to its position above the rapids it has lost its former importance and the larger and still-growing town of Nasiri has taken its place. In the town there are some 250 mud- brick houses. Most of the population are Arabs of mixed tribes, but there are some Persians. The majority are engaged in agriculture. Hawizeh, a once prosperous town in southern Khuzistan, is situated about forty miles west by north of Bandar Nasiri, in the center of the Hawizeh district, of which it is the capital. The I The Peoples of Iran 187 inhabitants, formerly estimated at about 700 individuals, follow the doctrines and principles of the Shiahs. Ram Hormuz, the chief town in the district of the same name, lies 160 miles northeast of Mohammerah. The hills of the Bakhtiari country begin from two to three miles north of the town, which has a population formerly estimated at 10,000 persons, consisting of a class of mixed origin, chiefly Bakhtiaris, Behbehanis, Arabs, and Persians, who are described as Ahl al Ramuz. Mohammerah, the capital and most important seaport of south- ern Khuzistan, stands on the right or north bank of the Haffar Canal, a continuation of the Karun River. The inhabitants are principally local Arabs belonging to the Hilalat, Bait Chenan, and Mutur divisions of the Muhaisin; but there are also numerous Arabs descended from Bahreini refugees, some natives of Dizful and Shushtar, a few merchants from other parts of Iran, and several hundred families of Christians and Jews. Hindian, in southeastern Khuzistan, occupies both banks of the Hindian River, at a point sixteen miles northwest of its mouth. The inhabitants have consisted largely of Qanawatis, sections of the Bani Tamim, who migrated here from the Karun and Chab districts. The people are boatmen, cultivators of grain, and traders. They possess a considerable number of sheep and cattle, and a few horses. The chief town of the district of the same name, Fallahiyeh, was the capital of the Chab tribe. The inhabitants, who were mainly Chab of the Khanafirah division, probably numbered about 2,000. The village of Bandar Ma'shur, generally called Bandar, is situated ninety-five miles northeast of Mohammerah, a mile north of the inland termination of the Khor Ma'shur branch of the Khor Musa. According to local tradition, the original village of Ma'shur was situated at a place called Tall Kafiran, which seems to be on the southeast bank of the Khor Ma'shur, almost three miles from its head. Among the possible 1,500 inhabitants, formerly a large part were Bandaris or Bandarieh, whose origin was unknown even to themselves, although it may be that they were connected with the Bandariyah section of the Chab tribe; the remainder of the inhabitants were Qanawatis from Behbehan. The entire com- munity is bilingual, speaking both Arabic and Persian. The inhabitants of Khuzistan are of a mixed type, particularly in the northern part of the province where many Lurs are to be found, while the towns of Dizful and Shushtar have a population of some- 188 Anthropology of Iran what obscure origin, being considered Assyrian in descent, with a large and now preponderating admixture of Persian blood. In the southern section of the province, with the exceptions of the town of Mohammerah, some of the larger villages on the Hindian, where there are a number of Persians, and the neighborhood about the Jarrahi, where there are many Lurs, the people are all Arabs, with a considerable infusion of Persian blood. No census figures are available, but the population of northern Khuzistan has been estimated from various sources as about 200,800 and for southern Khuzistan as 206,400. As in Iraq, the people may be divided into four classes: nomads, i.e. cattle owners, comprised chiefly of Lurs, who live in tents and migrate to secure the best pasture for their cattle; semi-nomads, i.e. part cattle owners, part cultivators of the soil, the best examples of whom are the Bani Tamim and the Bani Lam; settled farmers, i.e. those who reside permanently either on the river banks or in an irrigated area and are engaged in purely agricultural pursuits, for the most part the Chab of the Fallahiyeh district and the Muhaisin; town dwellers, i.e. those engaged in commercial or industrial pur- suits, and Government officials. In A.D. 640 Hormuzan, satrap of Khuzistan, was defeated at Ram Hormuz, and Ahwaz was handed over to the Arabs. This appears to be the first date of a settlement of purebred Arabs in the province. With few exceptions the tribes now living in Khuzistan originated from central Arabia, migrating either directly to Khuzi- stan or to Iraq whence they have since come in search of land or employment. There is practically no intermarriage between the Persians and Arabs except in the southeastern districts of Hindian and Zaidan. The number of Persians in Khuzistan has been ex- tremely small. Intermarriage, trade, and Government posts have attracted few into the province. Lurs used to camp during the winter months in the Dizful and Shushtar districts, while some tribal groups were always to be found about the Jarrahi. Their origin is somewhat doubtful; they appear to be of the same ethnical group as the Kurds,' their neighbors of the north, although they consider it an insult to be confounded with them. Most writers, however, agree that they are of aboriginal, old Aryan, or Iranian stock, which preceded Arabs, 1 My forthcoming report, "The Anthropology of Iraq," will contain statistical comparisons between the Lurs of Pusht-i-Kuh and the Kurds of northern and northeastern Iraq. The Peoples of Iran 189 Turks, or Tatars in the land. They do not marry with the Arab, with whom they are not generally on the best terms. In Khuzistan the majority of the inhabitants are Shiahs, although some Sunnis live in the Hindian district. A few Christians and Jews are found in Bandar Nasiri and in Mohammerah. According to local tradition, during the past 1,500 years Sabaeans^ have occupied this district. In relatively recent times, driven out by the Sun- worshipers and by the Fire-worshipers, they settled in Chehar Riz, which lies between Band-i-Bazurgan on the left bank of the Tib and the Pusht-i-Kuh. Here the Persians again molested them and they fled, some to Hawizeh and some to the Euphrates marshes in the district of Suq-as-Shuyukh, Iraq. The Persians endeavored to oblit- erate all traces of the religion of the Sabaeans and burned the holy books found at Chehar Riz. About 500 years later, however, it was discovered that one of these books had not been destroyed, and from this one surviving document all the present Sabaean books trace their origin. The language of the northern province is formed from the various dialects of Arabic and Luri, besides the patois of Dizful and Shushtar, while farther south Arabic, with a certain proportion of Persian words, is spoken. Outside of the territory of the Lur tribes and the towns of Dizful and Shushtar, Arabic and Persian are understood throughout the province. According to Wilson, tribes migrated into Khuzistan from central Arabia, Iraq, and Luristan in search of land which they might cultivate or on which their cattle could graze. TRIBES OF KHUZISTAN AFTER SIR ARNOLD WILSON Amla. — They were originally a Lur tribe of the Pusht-i-Kuh that fled from the Vali about 100 years ago and settled at Shush (ancient Susa), where they cultivated wheat, rice, and barley. The Amla numbered 800 families. Anajijah. — The Anafijah, sometimes known as Bait Zandi, were an Arab tribe said to be related to Al Kathir, once powerful and of primary importance in southern Khuzistan, but more recently greatly diminished in numbers, and associated with the Bait Saad ' Sabaeans, an ancient people and kingdom, which flourished in southern Arabia (capital Saba) before the Himyarites, attained their prime about the middle of the first millennium B.C. For a detailed description of their social organization, customs and folklore see Mrs. E. S. Drower's "Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran." 190 Anthropology of Iran of Al Kathir. The Anafijah comprised 600 families and were con- fined to the right bank of the Karun between Band-i-Qir and Wais. A few were scattered in Miyanab. They were semi-nomadic, owning sheep, donkeys, camels, and horses, but depending also upon cultiva- tion of wheat and barley. The tribe consisted of the following subsections (number of families given in parentheses): Bait Alawan (30); Barbuti (30); Barkan or Bait Diwan (20); Dailam (100); Daghaghalah, later a separate tribe; Dilfieh (80), originally of Hamaid; Hamaid or Bait Tarfeh (60); Jarullah (60); Bait Khashkuri (50); Mayyah (40); Mowammanah (30), principally owners of sheep, cattle, and buffaloes, and originally Nais of the Hawizeh district; and Nais. Bala Girieh. — The Lur tribes, which encamped on the plains of northern Khuzistan during the winter months to graze their cattle, were all of this confederation, which numerically (some 10,000 families) was the strongest of the four principal divisions of the Lurs. The confederation has included 5,000 families of Bairanawand, who wintered in Pul-i-Tang, 1,000 families of Dirakwand, who wintered northwest of Dizful and were famous for breeding mules, 800 families of Papi north of Dizful and 3,000 families of Sagwand, some of whom were located at Shush. In reality the Sagwand are a separate tribe but have a relationship to the Lur tribes. Under these main sections there were subsections of Baharwand, Kurd Ali- wand, Murad Aliwand, Mirs, and Qalawand, located north and west of Dizful. Bawieh. — This once powerful tribe (2,320 families) of southern Khuzistan claims descent from the Arab hero Muhalhal, and con- siders its ancestry superior to that of the Chab. Both sedentary and nomadic, they raised wheat and barley and grazed their sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, and cattle between the Jarrahi and Karun rivers in the territory north of Marid. The confluence of the Haddam and Ab-i-Gargar was the northern boundary. The sections of this tribe were as follows: (numbers of families given in parentheses): Al bu Kurdan (300), who were originally Bakhtiaris; Amur (200); Al bu Atwi (200); Al bu Balid (200); Bur- aiyah or Al bu Birri (100); Faratisah (40); Hawashim (20); Jama (30) ; Al Jabbareh (150), who are Persians; Bani Khalid (80) ; Maavieh (150); Bait Nasir (50); and Bait Nawasir (500). The Bait Nawasir were divided into the following subsections: Ajajat, Awaudeh, Bait Hanzal, Al bu Hussain, Al bu Musabbi, Ghazzawiyah, Al bu Rumi, and Sha'abainah. The Peoples of Iran 191 Additional sections comprised the Bait Raliamah (100), Bait Sunhair (100), and the Bait Zahrao. Chah al Gubban. — This numerous and once powerful tribe im- migrated to southern Khuzistan at the end of the sixteenth or begin- ning of the seventeenth century. At the time of their arrival, Khuzi- stan was a subject of dispute between Tehran and Constantinople [Istanbul], to whom the Chab had previously been subject. When they spread eastward they found themselves obliged to pay tribute to the Shah. For the next two centuries the Chab committed acts of piracy with impunity, although naval operations were repeatedly attempted against them by the East India Company, without success. In the beginning of the nineteenth century a rival to the Chab appeared in the Muhaisin, who determined to throw off the yoke of the Chab; but it was not until 1898 that the Chab sheikhdom was finally extinguished and the Muhaisin controlled its possessions from the Karun to Hindian. The Chab tribesmen did not become entirely settled, nor were they wholly nomadic. Where they owned arable lands, they culti- vated wheat, barley, and rice; they also possessed buffaloes, cattle, sheep, and even donkeys. They owned numerous date groves along the banks of the canals, while in the marshes they used canoes from which to fish and to shoot wild fowl. The tribe was divided into three main groups: Dris or Asachrah (1,640 families), Al bu Ghubaish (1,720 families), and Khanafirah (2,490 families). These comprised the following subsections: Dris or Asachrah Families Al bu Abbadi .... 80 Bait Afsaiyil 30 Albu Ali 100 Atqieh 50 Bait Aziz 50 Al bu Banaidar... 100 Al bu Dahallah ... 100 Al bu Dalli 100 BaitGhadhban... 100 Al bu Hammadi . . 30 AlbuHamud 80 Al bu Hardan .... 100 Al bu Masud 50 Albu Musaiyid. . . 50 Mutaridah 50 Al bu Nairn 50 Bait Ramah or Al Matrud 30 Bani Rashid 100 Salaiyah 50 Al bu Sharhan 30 Al bu Shilaqah ... 50 Al bu Ghubaish Families Abul Od 10 Al Amarah 40 Bait Aqqar Al bu Badr 60 Bandariyah 30 Dialim or Juwaisif 50 Bait Farhud 150 Haiyach 70 Hilaiyil 100 Bait Ithamneh ... 50 Al bu Jabbar 100 Juwarin 30 Bait Khawaitir . . . 150 Al bu Mairi 50 Bait Muhaidi 30 Muqatif 60 Al bu Nassar 80 Al Quwam 40 Bani Rashid 50 Bait Rajaib 20 Bani Salih 10 Khanafirah Families Achris 60 Amara 100 Al bu Ashairah 70 Daradishah 50 Dawarichah 150 Bait Dhuwaiyib .... 50 Al bu Ghanam ... 80 Al bu Hamdi 50 Hazbah 500 Al bu Karaim. ... 50 Kawamil 100 Albu Khadhaiyir . . . . 100 Al bu Khanfar 150 Mikasibah 100 Muqaddam 500 Rubaihat 50 Shawardiyah 50 Suwalim 200 192 Anthropology of Iran Dris or Asachrah Families Al bu Ghubaish Families Khanafirah Families Al bu Subaiyah . . . 50 Al bu Shamal 60 Thawar .. 50 Shiyakhnah . 30 Shiyakhnah 30 Al bu Zambar. . .. 30 AlbuSuf . 50 Bait Shuraifat 150 Thawamir . 100 Bait Suwaiyir 40 Al bu Ubaid . . . . . 30 Al bu Taheh 40 Al bu Taraichi .... 30 Umaiyid Rafaji . . . . 100 Umtayir al-Nassari 10 BaitZibad 80 In addition, a division of 600 families of Nassar, comprised of Jaudeh and Maghaliyah, lived on Abadan Island; it was more or less separated from the Chab al Gubban and claimed by the Muhaisin. There were also 400 families of Sadah and forty of Bait Khallaif. The Bait Ghadhban and Al bu Hamud were associated with the Bait Afsaiyil. Only half of the Shiyakhnah lived with the Al bu Ghu- baish. The Bandariyah were previously with the Amara. The Juwarin were associated with the Bait Ithamneh and half of the Al bu Shamal with the Dris. The Hazbah and Muqaddam were some- times considered a separate division. Daghaghalah. — The Daghaghalah were previously a nomadic Arab tribe living in tents on the Karkheh. They were tributary to Hawizeh. Later it was known as a section of the Anafijah until the Sheikh of Mohammerah ordered the tribesmen to settle at Mubatihah and sever their connection with the Anafijah. These tribesmen, who numbered 150 families, were settled agriculturists. Hamaid. — ^This tribe was partly nomadic, partly settled, and was allied to the Bawieh. Subsisting chiefly on the cultivation of wheat and barley, the tribesmen also owned sheep, camels, and cattle. There settled formerly among the Anafijah, near Naddafiyah on the Karun River and for fifteen miles eastward, some 750 families of the Hamaid known as Bait Awamir, who comprised the following subsections (numbers of families in parentheses): Al bu Alwan (60), Attab (250); Al bu Duwarij (60); Al bu Khalid (40); Kharamizeh (50); Al bu Muhaisin (100); Muratisah (70); Said (60); and Shuwaib (60). Besides this section there were 150 families of Bait Muwajid in the Jarrahi district, who left the Hamaid and settled here as culti- vators. South of the Ab-i-Diz near Abu Jazirah were sixty families of Hamaid al Tarfah. Bani Hardan. — The small tribe of Bani Hardan, consisting of some 500 families, was settled to some extent at Kut Nahr Hashim on the Karkheh and Liaimi on the Karun, as well as inland from the The Peoples of Iran 193 left bank of the Gargar at Shiraif and Shakhah. Although chiefly pastoral, they also raised wheat and barley. The Bani Hardan were made up of the following sections (number of families in parentheses) : Bait Abudeh (100); Al bu Hajji (100); Bani Naameh or Shutaiyat (50); Bait Shiyah (100); Shijairat (80), a scattered section; and Bani Tamim (100). Hindian, Zaidan, Bandar Ma'shur, and Jarrahi Districts. — With the exception of half the Jarrahi district, where part of the vast Chab tribe lived, these four districts were inhabited by sections of tribes — Lurs, Persians, and Arabs — who for various reasons wandered from their own lands and settled in the southeastern districts of Khuzi- stan. Because they had long since deserted their main tribes or confederations and attached themselves to the Sheikh of Moham- merah, they were included as tribes of the districts in which they resided. The population of these four areas, numbering some 4,200 families, v/as in part sedentary and agricultural, in part pastoral. The Hindian district included the gi^eatest number of these tribes. Within the last hundred years 150 families of Abad migrated to Karapah from the Kuhgalu territory. Eighty families of Aushar, who are said to have left Shiraz on the death of Karim Khan, settled at Cham Tangu, Faili, and Sar Kharreh. They were pre- viously Babis but have now turned Mohammedan. The Charasi, whose fifty families lived at Jabirabad, were said to be Persians, originally from the territory between Bushire and Behbehan. Some 200 families of Gashtil, also from north of Behbehan, lived at Gaz Ali, Cham Tangu, Gazal Shabun, and Cham Rahmun. Settled in Hindian, at Sahababad, and Cham Kunar, during the past 100 years, the Gurgi, who are said to be Persians, formerly numbered 200 families. The Haidari (300 families), who are Sunnis although they profess to be Shiahs, migrated from the Rudhilleh district about 1845, to dwell at Jiri. The Haiyat, comprising seventy families, were Persians who had always been in Hindian, chiefly at Cham Kaleg and Puz Safid. Scattered throughout the district were fifty families of Ja'fari, some working as fellahin and some as coolies at Abadan. Previously a large tribe, separating from the Kuhgalu in 1845, the Ja'fari lost their independence because of poor crops. The Mutur' (150 families), near Deh Mulla, are of Chab al Gubban origin and are said to have lived always in Hindian. The Nidharat, reputed to have immigrated from central Arabia in the beginning of the seventeenth century to Bandar Rig, where they lived on Shatt Bani ^ Cf. under Muhaisin. I 194 Anthropology of Iran Tamim, came about 100 years ago to Hindian, where a decade or so ago their 150 families were to be found at Kut Muhannah and Buzi- yeh. According to tradition, the original home of the Qanawati, the principal tribe of the district, was Kufa. In the nineteenth century part of the tribe migrated from Behbehan to southern Khuzistan, where there were 250 families in Hindian, 150 in Bandar Ma'shur district, and 100 in the Jarrahi district. The Sha'abuni, numbering about 300 families, are Persians who occupied the section of Hindian close to the sea. The Shuraifat, previously a large tribe who enjoyed the protection of the Chab al Gubban and are said to belong to the Bani Tamim, comprised five subtribes. One of these was the Rijaibat, of whom 250 families lived at Suwaireh and Shairi- yeh in Hindian. The tribes in the Jarrahi district consisted of the four other sub- sections of the Shuraifat. These were Bani Cholan at Khalafabad (200 families), Jibarat at Bunvar (100 families), and Maqatif and Muwalli at Daueh (100 families each). The Zaidan district lies farthest east of the four districts in southern Khuzistan under discussion. Here at Chashmeh Murad and Shahr Zaidan lived 300 Persian families of Agha Jari, who migrated from Behbehan. One hundred families of Cherum at Cham Charatah were also from Behbehan and were originally Kuhgalus. The Laki, who numbered 200 families at Shiri, are Persians and were said to have migrated from Khurramabad about 1800. They were once known as Nadir Shah's Laki. Also derived from the Kuhgalu were 150 families of Shaikh Mamu at Darunak. The Shir Ali are said to be Bakhtiaris who came from Behbehan about 1899. They consisted of 300 families at Kashiri, Buzait, Shirabad, and Gargari. The Bandar Ma'shur district contained only part of the Qanawati, as noted previously, and 150 families of Bandari, who may have been formerly a section of Chab al Gubban. Al Kathir. — Al Kathir was an important Arab tribe, numbering 4,600 families, which inhabited the country between the Shatait branch of the Karun and the Karkheh River. Owing to the fact that in addition to these rivers, the Gargar, the Diz, and the Sham- run through the lands of the Al Kathir, the soil has been consistently cultivated. Cattle and buffaloes also were plentiful. The majority of the tribesmen were marshmen. The tribe was originally di\ided into two groups. Bait Saad and Bait Karim, which were frequently considered as separate tribes. The Peoples of Iran 195 These tribes were later known by the names of their sections and subsections. The numbers of famiUes are given here in parentheses. Those sections previously part of the Bait Saad comprised Al bu Awarah (100); Chab al Sitatlah (500), who originated from Bani Lam and were divided into Bait Farajullah and Bait Karamullah; Al Haiya (100), who were also of Bani Lam origin, and who later fol- lowed Bait Umair; Mizraeh at Shaabiyah (200) and at Taraifi (300); Al Musahinah (100); Nais (100); and Bait Umair (600), of Bani Lam origin. The Bait Karim sections included Chaab-i-Dubais (800), of Bani Lam origin; Dailam (600); Al Hamzah (200); and Zighaib (300). In addition, there were 400 families of Dabbat, who followed Chab al Sitatlah, and 300 families of Al bu Hamdan, who are of Bani Lam origin and were once a section of Chaab-i-Dubais. Al Khamis. — Al Khamis, i.e. sons of five, is an Arab tribe of little importance inhabiting the districts of Ramuz and Fallahiyeh. About 1840 these tribesmen migrated to the country between Hawizeh and the Karun, but they have since returned to their own lands. Both agricultural and pastoral, the tribe was made up of the following sections and numbers of families: Al bu Abbad (20), Ahmadiyah (50), Jinam (200), Mansur (100), Muhsin (50), Bani Rashid (200), Rizaij al Sufaih (50), Rizaij al Sultan (50), Suwarghi (20), Zubaidi (40), and Zuhariyah (50). Bani Lam. — The Bani Lam, a powerful tribe, are best known in the Amara Liwa of Iraq. The tribe claims close relationship with the Bani Turuf, as both believe themselves to be descended from Hatim [Natim?] Tai of the Hijaz, famous as the most hospitable man of the age. The connection is reached as follows: Hatim I Nawwar Turuf Lam In addition to the sections, which are recorded on page 196, a large number of the later tribes of Khuzistan were of Bani Lam origin, notably Chaab-i-Dubais, Chab al Sitatlah, and other sections of Al Kathir, Marawuneh, Al Ruwaiyan, as well as small tribes, which outwardly had no connection with the Bani Lam. Of the sections mentioned in the lists of Bani Lam the majority were gradually drifting away and were treated as separate tribes. The Chenanah and Khasraj alone retained their close connection with the Bani Lam. 196 Anthropology of Iran The 5,700 families of the Bani Lam were sedentary and semi- nomadic, Hving chiefly along the Karkheh River. They were divided into the following sections: (1) Between Karkheh and the Karun 150 families of Al Baji were settled as cultivators of the land. (2) The Chenanah numbered 1,750 tents of nomadic tribesmen, at Duwairij, Karkheh, and Hawizeh. They usually moved into the Amara district in summer. The Chenanah comprised two subsec- tions: Al Doraisat (780 families) of Bani Rabiah origin, who joined the Bani Lam in their earliest days as a tribe living along the Tigris River; and the Al Sanawat (970 families). (3) The Al Duhaimi were an unimportant group of 400 families who came originally from Zobaid and settled along the Karkheh. (4) The Abdul Khan (1,300 families) cultivated the land between the rivers Shaur and Karkheh at Khairabad. Because the Abdul Khan have been so long in Iran they have often been considered a separate tribe. (5) The Khasraj (approximately 1,250 families), who lived along the Karkheh and sometimes moved to Amara in summer, were a semi-nomadic section of the Bani Khasraj tribe, who came to the Bani Lam from the Bani Rabiah. They left the Bani Lam in Iraq more than eighty years ago and thereafter generally moved with the Chenanah, although not to the Amara district. (6) The Sarkhah were a semi-nomadic section, half of whom lived in Iraq. The other half (850 families) lived with the Chenanah along the Karkheh River. This section was divided into the following subsections: Gaman (200); Al Humaid (100), who had only recently left Iraq; Ruwaishid (300), who are mostly in Iraq; Shahab (100); and Shubai- shah (150). Several of the principal sections of the Bani Lam were composed of subsections and gi'oups. The following lists are for the Chenanah, Abdul Khan, and Khasraj. Abdul Khan Baits Families Baits Families Nesairy 100 Aifan 1 Al Shawwai 300 Banadil | Bani Ugbah 300 Chaf i 600 Darwish f Jadir Maiyah J Khasraj Al bu Laitif Al Turqi Baits Families Baits Families Adhab 130 Al Abdullah 100 Ammar 70 Alaunah Saqur 300 Al bu Id 100 Uthuq 50 Janadiah 200 Albu Wais 100 The Peoples of Iran 197 Chenanah Al. DORAISAT Al Sanawat Baits Families Baits Families Amarnan 100 Darwish 30 Ataiwi 80 Hajjaj 250 Brisam 150 Luguairrat 200 Shilhan 100 Bait Nassar or Assad 30 Talaibat 200 Bait Sah 30 Zoraiyat 150 Bait Shahib al Salim 50 Bait Shaiyah 100 Shammer 150 Sinaid 80 Zamil or Dhumad 50 Marawuneh. — The Marawuneh cultivated wheat and raised sheep on the Karun River northwest of Wais. These claimed to be an offshoot of the Bani Lam in the Amara district. Muhaisin. — A settled tribe of southern Khuzistan, the Muhaisin have lived partly in Iran and partly in Iraq on the banks of the Shatt al-Arab, where they have been occupied in the cultivation of dates. This tribe is said to be descended from Muhaisin, and his son- in-law, Kasib. These individuals, according to tradition, belonged to a tribe of the Mohammerah district which was comxpelled to emigi'ate by the encroachment of the Chab. Under the leadership of Muhaisin and Kasib, the migrating tribe settled along the Tigris River under the nam.e of Al Hussain Pasha. Kasib and Muhaisin with some followers, having purchased land in the neighborhood of the modern site of Mohammerah from the Chab, eventually re- turned to settle near the original seat of the tribe, and the headship of the tribe which they founded remained in the family of Kasib. In consequence 4,900 families settled on the right bank of the Karun River from Qajariyah to Mohammerah, on both banks of the Shatt al-Arab between Basra and Fao, and on Abadan Island. The tribe was divided into numerous sections, as follows, the number of families for each section being given in parentheses: Aidan (400), one-third of whom lived in Iraq; Ahl al Araiyidh (400); Al Atab (400); Baghlaniyah (300); Bait Chenan (300); Bakhakh (200) ; Dris (300) ; Al bu Farhan (400) ; Bait Ghanim (400), comprising as subsections Al bu Khatir, Al bu Ginam, Al bu Isa, Miraziyah, Dawalim, and Al bu Suwaidi; Hilalat (300), who according to local tradition came from Muscat, where they were known as Miraiziq; "Al bu Maarrif" (200)[!];Michasibah (100); Mutur (400); Al Qutaghnah (200); Nassar (600), originally Chab al Gubban, formed of the subsections Jaudeh and Maghaliyah; Thuwamir (200); and Zuwaidat (200). 198 Anthropology of Iran Al Ruwaiyan. — This was a small tribe of 100 families at Ghurai- bah, who claimed descent from the Bani Lam. Although these tribesmen were usually sedentary, they moved to better land when the crops failed. Sagwand. — The Khuzistan section of the Sagwand Lurs, known as Rahim Khani, comprised 400 Shiah families located in winter at Daaiji south of Dizful, but moving in summer to the hills in the Khurramabad district. In addition to this section, the Sagwand included 1,500 families of Azizullah in Pusht-i-Kuh and 2,000 families of Ali Khani in Luristan. Neither of the last-named tribes ventured into Khuzistan. Salamat. — The 200 families of the Salamat tribe were settled in central Khuzistan east of the Ab-i-Gargar between Haddam and Abgungi, where they raised crops and pastured camels, donkeys, horses, sheep, cows, and buffaloes. There were three sections: Hamid al Salim, Masakh, and Al bu Wais. Bani Salih. — In the area north of Shuwaiyib, and between this town and Hawizeh in western Khuzistan were 2,100 huts of the sedentary Bani Salih. They comprised many sections and sub- sections, the numbers of whose families are shown here in paren- theses: Al bu Adhar (400); Birahineh (100); Al bu Ghanimeh (150), Manasir (150), and Al bu Suwat, all of whom cultivated wheat and barley; Halaf (800), who were chiefly marshmen known under the subsections Al bu Aubaiyid, Braichah, Al bu Ghurbah, Hiyadir, Bani Sakain, and Sudan; and Hamudi (400), who were not settled, formed by the subsections Huwaishim and Zuhariyah. Sherafah. — Sherafah was a tribe of 900 families settled in the Hawizeh district near Shuwaiyib. These tribesmen cultivated wheat, barley, and a little rice. They also raised sheep, cattle, donkeys, and camels. The two main sections — Bait Rizij and Bait Shahab — each contained 450 families. Bait Rizij was made up of Bait Habichiyah and Bait Zuhariyah. Bait Shahab comprised Batuliyah, Bani Naamah, Bait Shamus, and Bait Shumikhliyah. Bani Tamim {Bani Malik). — In general the Bani Tamim (2,250 families) were nomadic between Hawizeh and Ahwaz, extending as far south along the Karun River as Qajariyah. A few families settled on the banks of the Karun. They raised wheat and barley. In addition they owned sheep, cattle, horses, camels, and donkeys. The tribal sections, with the number of families shown in parentheses, were: Abudah (100); Aidan (150); Aiyasham (200); Awainat (100); Barajiyah (50); Ghazaiwi (150); Ghazli (100); Hamudi (200); Hawa- The Peoples of Iran 199 shim (200); Bait Hussain Faiz (50); Maqasis (100); Al Sabti (150); Al Sagar, Bani Sakain (250); Shahman (100); Shuraifat (200); and Sulaiman (100). Bani Turuf. — Bani Turuf tribesmen possessed 8,000 huts in the Hawizeh district within the southern loop of the Karkheh River, chiefly near Bisaitin at the western border and Khafajiyeh, There were two main sections: the Bait Said (4,625 famihes) and the Bait Saiyah (3,375 families), who owned buffaloes, cattle, and a few sheep. They cultivated rice as well as a small amount of wheat and barley. Bait Said Subsections Families Bait Abba3 600 Bait Shaikh Ahmad 25 Bait Alwiyah 25 Atashnah 20 Aubaiyid 300 Al bu Aubaiyid 200 Suq al Bisaitin 200 Bait Daghir 25 Al Gharrah " 100 Al Ghawabish 200 Halaf 50 Bait Hammadi 100 Bait Harb 25 Al bu Hardan 150 Al bu Hariz 150 Bait Jodah 100 Suq al Khafajiyeh 150 Manabih 150 Bait Mazraeh 25 Bait Sayyid Mehdi 25 Murammah 300 Nuhairat 20 Qarushat 100 Al Sa'dun 150 Bait Safi 50 Bait Sakhar 150 Bait Shikhali 50 Bait Shubaiyib 25 Bait Sodah 100 Suwali 50 Suwari: Bait Nassar 300 Bait Auwajah 500 Tuwairat 50 Bait Wushah 100 Zuhaidat 50 Zirgan. — Zirgan (400 families), a semi-nomadic tribe chiefly pastoral, was composed of two sections. One, the Al bu Fazil, Bait Maharib, Bait Sabti, and Zuhariyah, numbering 300 families, occupied the left bank of the Karun River, three miles north of Ahwaz. The other (100 families), Muammah and Bait Samak, were found in the Jarrahi district to the southeast near Cham as Sabi. Bait Saiyah Subsections Families Bait al Abbas 50 Al bu Abdi Nebi 50 Bait Abdul Sayyid 200 Al bu Afri 100 Bait Akhwaiyin 25 Bait Athaiyib 50 Bait Sayyid Badr 100 Bawieh 100 Ali Bilul 50 Albu Childah 100 Faraisat 300 Al bu Fendi 25 Bait Hammadi 150 Al Hawass 250 Hiyadir 150 Ahl al Iraq 100 Al bu Jilal 300 Bait Menaishid 100 Al bu Mughainim 100 Bait Muhawi 100 Al bu Nahi 100 Ahl al Naqrah 50 Bait Hajji Salim 50 Bait Sandal 25 Bait Shahainah 50 Ahl al Shakhah 150 Bait Sultan 100 Suwaid al Sudan 100 Suwaiyid 250 Bait Sayyid Ali Tologhani 100 200 Anthropology of Iran The Bakhtiari Garmsir^ The Bakhtiaris, who are among the most important nomad tribes of Iran, Hve in the mountains west of Isfahan. Prior to the 1938 territorial readjustments the Bakhtiari district lay in the western section of Isfahan province and partly in northeastern Khuzistan. According to one tradition, this tribe came originally from Syiia. It must be noted that both the Druze of Syria and the Bakhtiaris are hyperbrachycephalic. Few anthropometric figures- on this important group have yet been recorded. The following account of the garmsir, written some twenty-five years ago by Sir Arnold T. Wilson, has been added with his generous permission. The Bakhtiari garmsir includes an area of about 2,000 square miles south of the Karun River. This area is bounded on the north, west and northeast by the Karun River; on the southeast by the Mangasht Mountains; on the south by the Kuhgalu border. The district is hilly, with narrow, fertile valleys on the east side, where the rivers receive the drainage from the winter snow on the Mangasht Mountains. The most prominent feature of the orography of the region is the existence of large areas of gypsum (gach), which, worn away by detrition and atmospheric erosion, have become a systemless mass of low hills. These hills are treeless but grassy. They are almost uninhabited, as the water which drains from them is generally bitter (talkh), being impregnated v^dth mineral salts. This quality is characteristic of nearly all the water of rivers draining the district into the Karun River, but is not perceptible in the water of tributaries of the Ramuz River (Rud-i-Zard). The west end of the Mangasht Mountains, in the east corner of this region, is snow-capped until May; here were located the yailaq of some Bahmai and a few Chehar Lang families. The Kuh-i-Asmari deserves mention on account of its dominating position. It rises to a height of nearly 5,000 feet from among gach hills not more than 2,500 feet in elevation. Moreover, it is composed of nummulitic limestone, in striking contrast to the red shales of the immediately surrounding country. ' See also Bishop, de Bode, Curzon (1892a, vol. 2, pp. 283-303), Harrison and Fal- con (1932, esp. map facing p. 272), Layard (1887). Wilson (1926). Cf. Appendix E. 2 See references in Chap. V, footnotes, pp. 442 etseq. Some writers have included the Bakhtiari among the Lurs. Although I have been unable to find an adequate series of anthropometric data on the Bakhtiaris, the indications are that they belong to a hyperbrachycephalic group in marked contradistinction to the Lurs (pp. 367-382). 201 202 Anthropology of Iran The Shatt-i-Malamir, in the middle of the plain of that name, is a shallow, marshy sheet of salt water. In the winter it occupies an area of some twelve square miles and attracts large numbers of waterfowl. The submontane tract known as the Bakhtiari garmsir resembles in its main features the rest of the hilly country which borders the Mesopotamian [Iraq] plain. It consists of a series of roughly parallel ridges, running northwest and southeast, gradually increasing in height as the Zagi'os Mountains are approached. Metamorphic rocks find no place in this region. Tertiary deposits, Cretaceous, nummulitic, and post-nummulitic in descending order from north to south occupy the whole area. The predominating strata are gypsiferous, and are recognizable from a great distance by the gray color and irregular contour of the systemless mass of gypsum hills, which extend from near Shushtar to beyond Ram Hormuz in long belts, capped in places by shales and marls of a reddish tint. The standard work on the zoology of Iran is W. T. Blanford's contribution to Goldsmid's "Eastern Persia," volume 2, 1876, although much has been discovered and wTitten on the subject since this work was published. Broadly speaking, the Bakhtiari garmsir seems to lie, zoologically, as geologically, in the Zagros Mountain zone, rather than in that of Persian Mesopotamia as indicated by Blanford's zoological map. After leaving the alluvial plain of Khuzistan and entering the low hills near Shushtar, Jaru, or Ram Hormuz the species typical of the plain cease to occur and are replaced by mountain fauna. Ursus syriacus, the gray bear of Iran, is occasionally found in the low hills of the district. A fine specimen of leopard (Felix -pardus) was shot near Mamatain in 1907. The ibex (Capra aegagrus) roam the hills south of the Karun River. Other animals^ of special interest occurring in the district are the porcupine, the chinkara (Gazella benetti, near the Khuzistan plain only), the urial,^ and the wild hog on the plains. The latter is shot "for sport," but the Hat extract from its intestines some sort of drug which they use as medicine. Mr. Woosnam of the British Museum obtained a lynx at Shush in 1905, and a badger at Ram Hormuz. The fox, probably Vidpes persica ^ For further details regarding the fauna of Iran see "A Survey of the Fauna of Iraq, made by members of the Mesopotamia Expeditionary Force 'D' 1915- 1919," published by the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 1923. 2 The Afghan urial, Ovis vignei cycloceros Hutton, is recorded from twelve miles southeast of Shiraz, altitude 5,550 feet; see JBNHS, vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 38, 41, 1921. The Peoples of Iran 203 Blanf./ occurs in this region. The lion, until recently, was known to exist in the swamps of the river Diz, but it is doubtful if any now remain. Indeed, as far as is known, lions have not been seen in this district since Layard's time, when they were found at Ram Hormuz and Qal'eh-i-Tul. Domestic ruminants include the buffalo, which is fairly common, although it has been almost entirely in the hands of the "Arab Gau Mish." These tribesmen seem to have immigrated from Khuzistan, and to have attached themselves to the Bakhtiari in the same way as they have allied themselves to tribes in Fars. The other domestic ruminants of the Bakhtiari are the fat-tailed sheep, small oxen without a hump, and the one-humped camel. The Persian horse to be found in every Bakhtiari camp, spiritless and with no burst of speed, is nevertheless capable of covering great distances at a fast walk. This type of horse is as sure-footed as a mule and can exist on very little food. The mule is also common and greatly valued, while the donkey exists in considerable numbers. There is every reason to believe that the more central portion of the mountainous tract, lying between Shushtar and Isfahan, has been occupied from an indefinitely remote period by the tribes known as the Bakhtiari and their direct ancestors. It is equally impossible to assign a date to the origin of the two main branches — the Haft Lang and the Chehar Lang — into which the tribe is divided. Until very recent times the Haft Lang were nomads, while the Chehar Lang, formerly also nomadic, were for all practical purposes a settled population, supporting themselves primarily by agriculture. Indeed, the latter formed almost the entire permanent population of the tract here described. In the cold weather, however, the number of Haft Lang who entered the district was probably eight times as great as that of the sedentary population. In the latter part of spring the nomadic groups were accustomed to leave this low country for their upper pastures. (See Cooper for description of migration; Sackville-West for journey across Bakhtiari Mountains; and A. De Boucheman, pp. 108-116, for tent types.) The individuality and independence of these clans were more marked in the case of the Haft Lang than in that of the Chehar Lang. About the middle of the nineteenth century the hegemony of the combined tribes reposed with the Chehar Lang, but with the fall of the family of Muhammad Taqi Khan, this state of affairs was 1 Blanford described the species from specimens obtained in the hills near Shiraz (alt. 6,000 feet). 204 Anthropology of Iran altered. The supreme power then passed into the hands of the leading family of the Haft Lang, who retained it continuously through several generations. The Haft Lang established the domi- nance of their own sections and reduced their rivals to a position of complete subordination. As matters stood in 1912 and later, the Haft Lang chiefs governed the Chehar Lang through three principal families of the house of Muhammad Taqi Khan. A Bakhtiari story gives the following information (Lorimer, 1930, p. 364) concerning one group of Bakhtiari tribesmen: "Now there are about 1,000 houses of the Dinaruni tribe .... People call their tribe the Ali Mahmidi. At the present time they have their winter quarters at Susin, and their summer quarters at Pa i Tauwa i Doverar." After the reading of Harrison's splendid paper (1932) on the Bakhtiari country before the Royal Geographical Society (November 30, 1931), Sir Arnold Wilson (p. 210) made the following comments: "On the anthropological side comparatively little has been done, but it is fairly clear that the Bakhtiari tribesmen can be divided roughly into two classes, the long-headed and the short-headed, the former being for the most part immigrants from the south, representing successive waves of immigration, and the short-headed probably autochtonous." In 1934 a Persian traveler, who wishes to remain anonymous, visited the Kuhgalu country and lived among other tribes in Luristan and Fars. He obtained the following information, which he very kindly submitted for inclusion in this report. Among the Kuhgalus he encountered the following subtribes: Boir Ahmadi, Mamassani, Taibies, Bahmais, and Dushmanziari. A number of Sayyids, living among these tribes, are called Sudat-i-Bab, Mahm.udi, and other subtribal names. The traveler noted that in cranial and facial forms the Lur, Bakhtiari, and Kuhgalu "can easily be distinguished one from another." Isfahan No recent information regarding the size and details of the popu- lation of this province is available, and for this reason the reader must be referred to the standard reference works of Curzon, Sykes, Wilson, and others. In the western and northwestern portion of Isfahan province dwell the proud Bakhtiari tribesmen, part of whom migrate to and from the adjoining territory of Khuzistan. At Shahreza [formerly Qumisheh] the northbound traveler leaves the Qashqai country and enters that of the Bakhtiari tribesmen. The Peoples of Iran 205 Isfahan (elevation 5,689 feet) lies in a plain, which is desert in autumn and green in spring, extending to rugged mountains on all sides. Ebtehaj (p. 340) estimates the population at 100,140 persons, and states that in the reign of Shah Abbas (a.d. 1587-1629) there were one million inhabitants. In addition to the Jews (see pp. 290 et seq.) there is a large colony of Armenians in Julfa. Among towns he notes Shahreza, with a population of 17,251; and Murcheh Khur (elevation 6,210 feet), with an estimated population of 2,500. Fars and the Gulf Ports ^ Fars, which was one of the largest of the provinces of Iran, may- be divided climatically and to some extent physically into three di\dsions: the sardsir or sarhad, forming part of the central Iranian Plateau; the garmsir, or low hill country, through which access is obtained to the plateau from the sea; and the coastal plain, which varies in width from twelve miles near Bandar Dilam and more than thirty miles around Bushire, to only one or two miles or even less behind Tahiri. Sarhad, which covers approximately the entire province, lies north of a line passing through Miyan Kutal, Firuza- bad, Jahrum, and Darab. From the sea, beginning as far north as Shiraz, the mountains form a series of ridges roughly parallel to the coast. These ridges are separated by valleys ranging from four to ten miles in breadth. In general, the valleys are very fertile and afford abundant grazing, even in the garmsir, as water is always obtainable at no great depth. From Shiraz northward the mountain system is less regular and the valleys are generally more undulating, although quite fertile. The hills are as a rule barren; oak forests are found in Fars only along a narrow belt scarcely fifteen miles broad, near Miyan Kutal. North of Shiraz there is little forest. Mountains are seldom more than 4,000 feet in height; from the sea northward they rise tier upon tier, increasing gradually in elevation, the fairly regular folds inclining outward in all directions from a center; the increase in height of the intervening valleys is proportionate to that of the hills. The term garmsir in this province really signifies all districts Ijdng between the sardsir and the sea, although it is convenient to consider the coastal district separately. The Fars garmsir is not very thickly populated, but numerous ruins bear witness to the existence in former times of a much larger sedentary population. 1 The material in this chapter is based on reports made before the recent changes in the divisions of Iran, and is, therefore, offered in order to provide comparative data (see also Stein, 1935; and Le Strange). 206 Anthropology of Iran The plains and valleys are sparsely wooded, but on the higher hills there are wild almonds. The date palm {Phoenix dactylifera) flour- ishes everywhere, even in the more northerly districts. Every village, however small, has a patch of cultivated land around it, the intervening country being desert. Grazing is usually excellent, but dry after May; nomad tribes frequent this tract from November to April, spending the rest of the year in the sardsir. The coastal strip is the flat, alluvial, and arenaceous tract lying between the sea and the most southerly mountain ranges of Fars. The tract is generally level, studded with date palm plantations, and very lightly wooded. The population is relatively large, amounting in all to some 100,000 persons. The inhabited area commences at a point about thirteen miles north of Bandar Dilam, where the distance from the sea to the coastal chain of mountains is only fifteen miles, and stretches south for roughly 150 miles to the southern border of Dashti, where the coastal chain again comes to within a few miles of the sea. The greater part of the drainage system of Fars flows into the Persian Gulf. The Khor Khalil forms the harbor for the sailing craft and sea traffic of the villages of Ganaweh. The Rud Shur, generally called Shur-i-Bidu, is a salt stream flowing into the sea a few miles southeast of Bandar Rig. After the rains in January the Rud Shur overflows its banks, and together with Hilleh Rud inun- dates the country between the two streams for many miles. Hilleh Rud is an estuary formed by the junction of the Shapur and Dalaki rivers, which unite at Darudigah, about thirty miles above the mouth of the Hilleh. The Shapur River rises in the Rinjun hills behind the Tang-i-Chakan. The Dalaki River traverses the Jireh Valley, and after passing through the mountains of Jamilah emerges a few miles above the Dalaki bridge. The Chah Kutah stream may be traced back to the small river which waters the productive Khaviz (Khaiz) Valley. The Chah Kutah is deep in places, but never very broad on its passage down toward Ahram. The Mand River, known in its upper reaches as the Waz and Kara Aghach, rises in the mountains north of Khan-i-Zinian, at a place called Bun Rud. On the Dizgah plain the Mand is joined by the Kurdeh stream ; the Alamarvdasht and Fidash streams, with one branch rising a few miles south of Lar and another branch running through the Tang-i-Khur; the Shur River, which is a salt stream rising in the Khvajeh district north of Firuzabad; and the Jamm and The Peoples of Iran 207 Riz streams, fresh, but with dry beds for eight months in the year. It will be seen from the foregoing survey that the Mand River and its tributaries drain a very wide area; the comparatively small volume of the waters of the Mand is due to the fact that its basin embraces no lofty mountain ranges, except perhaps the Kuh-i-Safidar. There are certain rivers of Fars which do not reach the sea. The only important river in the interior is the Kur or Bandamir, with the Pulvar as tributary, which rises in the Chehar Dungeh district, and has a branch coming from the hills north of Deh Bid. It flows past the ancient site of Pasargadae (see pp. 549-551). The main stream known as Kur rises in the Ujan Valley and falls into Lake Niriz. Fars contains several of the salt lakes which are a peculiar characteristic of Iran. The Daryacheh-i-Famur in the Kazerun district is a narrow sheet of water lying northwest and southeast, about three and one-half miles long by one-half to one mile broad. Its marshy banks afford excellent grazing, and good shooting and fishing. The Dasht-i-Arjan Lake, in the plain of the same name, dries up almost entirely in summer; extensive marshes lie on its banks. Daryacheh-i-Maharlu (pp. 553-555), the smallest of the three main salt lakes of Fars, is situated in the Shiraz plain surrounded by low hills. It is fed by the Shiraz stream and by the drainage of Sarvistan. Extensive marshes, very shallow for more than a mile from the shore, cover its northern end. Daryacheh-i-Tashk, the second largest of the salt lakes of Fars, lies to the north of Lake Niriz (or Daryacheh- i-Bakhtigan), which it resembles generally. These lakes are, more- over, connected by two channels. Lake Niriz (pp. 552-553), which is the largest of the salt lakes of Fars, is sixty miles long and from three to five miles in width. Several wooded islets break the monot- ony of the surface of the lake. In a dry summer season the water evaporates entirely, and the bed may then be crossed on foot; the salt which remains on the lake bottom is extensively collected, as it is of fine quality and much in demand throughout Fars. Water fowl such as swans, flamingoes, and ducks are plentiful in the vicinity of the lakes. Kharg, an island northwest of Bushire, is about four miles in length, with an average breadth of two miles. The greater part of the island consists of almost barren, table-topped hills, highest in the middle and at the south end, where they exceed 250 feet. The maximum range of the temperature in the hot weather is seldom above 95°. The village of Kharg may consist of a hundred or more houses inhabited by some 600 Arabs, who speak a mixture 208 Anthropology of Iran of Persian and Arabic. Seven-eighths of the population are Sunnis. The sole occupation is fishing. Khargu, a very low, white and sandy island, lies two and one-half miles north of the island of Kharg. It is three miles in length from north to south and only half a mile wide. Although it appears to have been inhabited in former days, it is now desolate and barren. Extremes of heat and cold will be found in the province of Fars. The main road to Isfahan traverses plains 7,000 feet above sea level. In winter these plains are covered with deep snow for days together, and the tem.peratui'e falls to as low as 15°. In summer, however, there is a maximum shade temperature of 90°. Hea\'y rains com- mence about the middle of November and may be expected at intervals until the beginning of May. At an elevation of 5,000 feet and above, snow falls from December 1 onward. In Shiraz the periodic (usually annual) epidemics of diphtheria, smallpox, typhoid, chicken pox, and measles do not cause a large mortality. These usually occui' either in spring or autumn, with dysentery somewhat severe during the height of the summer. Epi- demics of cholera occur at intervals of a decade or more. The specific infectious diseases — typhus; rubella; intermittent, scarlet, dengue, and yellow fevers; beri-beri; plague; and hydrophobia — are practically unknown, but cases of anthrax, tetanus, and leprosy are occasionally seen. The only striking points about health con- ditions^ of Shiraz are the marked number of cases of diseases of the cornea and conjunctiva, dyspepsia, ascites, and venereal diseases. The hottest month in Bushire is August and the coldest months are January and February. In summer the thermometer has been known to rise to 115.5°, with excessive humidity between July 20 and September 15. The rainfall is mainly in November (1.72 inches), December (2.58 inches), January (1.23 inches), and February (0.73 inches). These four months are intermittently stormy and cold on shore, the sea being rough. Although it seldom actually freezes, the thermometer occasionally falls almost to the freezing point. Winds are from the northwest, the shamal, and from the south- east, the kaus. The former prevails at sea for nearly nine months of the year and blows very cold and boisterously in the winter months. The following table gives the various districts into which the province of Fars was formerly divided, with their approximate sedentary populations and chief towns. iN.B.: this paragraph refers to conditions about twenty-five years ago. Under the Shah's administration Shiraz has become one of the healthiest cities in Iran. The Peoples of Iran 209 District Locality Sedentary population (approximate) Chief town Abadeh-i-Iqlid Northern Fars . . . Abadeh-i-Tashk Near Daryacheh- i-Tashk 25,000 ...Abadeh Abraj West of Mahin Afzar Southwest of Jahrum . 'Alamarvdasht Southern Fars Angali Northeast of Bushire. 6,500 ...Abadeh-i-Tashk Chiefly Lashani and Cheharrahi 1,000 3,000 ...Ab-i-Garm Turks and Persians 4,000 ...'Alamarvdasht 2,700 . . . Mahmud Shahi Chiefly Behbehani Lurs, with a little Arab blood Arbaeh, Mahal-i- South of Firuzabad. . . . Ardakan Northwest of Shiraz . . . Arsinjan Northeast of Shiraz .... Asir Now generally included in the 'Alamarvdasht Baiza, Dasht-i- Northwest of Shiraz . . . Bandar Dilam Northwest coast of Fars Bawanat Northeastern Fars Bidshahr (or Juwun-i- Bidshahr) South of Jahrum .... Borazjan .Northeast of Bushire. Chah Kutah East of Bushire Chehar Dungeh, Sarhad-i- Northern Fars Dalaki Northeast of Bushire. Darab Southeastern Fars . . . Dashti Southeast of Bushire . Dashtistan East of Bushire 2,000 5,000 5,500 9,000 1-2,000 Turks from Simakan 6,500 .. 1,500 .. 3,000 .. 10^000 '. 20,000 .. Dashtis 15,000 .. Immigrants from Dashti or Shiraz . Hangam . Ardakan .Arsinjan .Asir .Bandar Dilam . Bawanat . Bidshahr . Borazjan . Chah Kutah . Asupas . Dalaki . Darab . Khurmuj Borazjan Dizkurd Northwestern Fars .... Farrashband East of Bushire Fasa North of Jahrum Firuzabad Northwest of Jahrum . . Gilehdar Southeastern Fars Hayat Daud Northwest coast of Fars Istehbanat South of Niriz Jahrum South central Fars Jireh East of Bushire Kamarij Northeast of Bushire . . . Kam Firuz North of Shiraz Kamin Northeast of Bushire . . . Kavar Central Fars, south of Shiraz Kazerun West of Shiraz Khafr West of Jahrum Khafrak Central Fars Khisht Northeast of Bushire. . . Khunj Southeastern Fars 500 Circassians 2,000 13,000 7,000 4,500 12,000 Mostly Lurs of Behbehan 4,000 7,500 2,500 1,000 3,500 4,000 2,500 20,000 8,000 4,000 5,000 . Farrashband Fasa . Firuzabad . Gilehdar . Bandar Rig . Istehbanat . Jahrum . Jireh . Kamarij . Khan-i-Man . Kavar . Kazerun Khafr . Khisht , Khunj 210 Anthropology of Iran District Locality Khvajeh North of Firuzabad , . Kuhmarreh South of Shiraz Kurbal Northeast of Shiraz . . Liravi Southeast of Bandar Dilam Mahin Northeast of Shiraz .... Mahur-i-Milati Northeast of Bushire . . . Maimand South of Shiraz Marvdasht Northeast of Shiraz .... Meshed-i-Murghab . . .North of Shiraz Mazarai Coastal district and part of Dashtistan on banks of Shapur River Naidun Northeast of Kazerun . . Niriz East central Fars Qir-o-Karzin Southwest of Jahrum . . . Qunquri Northern Fars Ramjird North of Shiraz . . . . Rud Hilleh North of Bushire . . . Sarchahan Northeast of Shiraz . Sarvistan Central Fars (or Burzu) Shabankareh North of Bushire . . . Shiraz Central Fars Shish Dangeh Northwestern Fars . Shulistan West of Shiraz . Sedentary population (approximate) 2,000 Chief town 3,000 Mainly Turk and Lurs 10,000 .. . Gaukan 6,000 .. Including Bandar Dilam; Arab and Lur Shiahs . Hisar 2,500 .. 1,000 . Mahin 1,000 .. Of Gurgi tribe . Maimand 3,500 .. 3,000 .. Persians . Meshed-i- Murghab . Mazarai 14,000 '.'. 6,000 .. 12,500 .. Summer quarters of Khamseh Arabs, Baseri and Cheharrahi . Naidun . Niriz .Qir . Deh Bid 4,000 .. 4,000 . Ramjird 3,500 800 .. . Sarvistan 10,000 .. 70,000 .. 3,000 . Deh Kuhneh . Shiraz Qashqai summer quarters; also a few Kuhgalu 8,000 Mamassanis 3,000 .. 8,000 10,000 .. 4,000 .. . Ahram . Saadabad Siakh South of Shiraz Simakan Northwest of Jahrum . Tangistan Southeast of Bushire . . Zira Northeast of Bushire . The principal towTis in Fars are as follows: Shiraz, the capital of Fars, has an elevation of 5,100 feet. It is situated on a stream in a fertile, well-watered plain, surrounded by mountains. There are rich gardens and vineyards in its vicinity. Five miles south of Shiraz the valley is separated from an extensive marsh by a range of low hills. Abadeh (elevation 6,100 feet), a town about halfway between Shiraz and Isfahan, has had an estimated population of 8,000. The The Peoples of Iran 211 majority of the houses are of sun-baked brick, the remainder of mud and straw. The chief industries are the manufacture of Persian cloth shoes (malikis), furniture, inlaid wares, felts, and carpets. The majority of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, the chief crops being wheat, barley, opium, raisins, gi-apes, and almonds. The people of Abadeh have developed a fine craft in woodwork. Arsinjan lies sixty miles east of Shiraz, in a valley encircled by hills. The population was estimated at 4,000. Cotton, rice, opium, and wheat are cultivated. Niriz (elevation 4,280 feet) is the name of a town and district at the south end of Lake Niriz (pp. 553-554). The town, scattered among groves and gardens, is surrounded by extensive, cultivated areas of cereals and opium. In 1903 Niriz contained about 2,500 houses and four sarais. The population has been estimated at 4,000. The people are said to be purely Persian, quite distinct from the tribes dwelling on the shore of the lake, which should be classed as nomadic, although they do not shift their quarters with the change of season. As no census figures of Fars were available, the data given below were based upon detailed tables of the number of houses in each village or on the relative area and populousness of each district. Five individuals were reckoned per house, a figure which has been found in practice to be relatively reliable when applied to villages. Nomad tribes have likewise been calculated at five persons to each tent. According to these estimates the number of nomadic and semi- nomadic tribes' may be listed as follows: Tribes Families Tribes Families Qashqai 33,045 Dushmanziari 2,000 Khamseh 18,330 Lashani 1,500 Boir Ahmadi 6 , 100 Mishmast 300 Mamassani 2 , 700 Sundry minor tribes 12 , 030 Total 76,005 The foregoing figures and all estimates of tribal numbers are dated before the influenza epidemic of October and November, 1918, when the tribal losses were perhaps 20 per cent. The sedentary population numbered about 500,000. The most densely populated districts are the coastal strip from Dilam to the mouth of the Mand River, and the country north, northeast, east, and southeast of Shiraz within a radius of sixty miles of that city. > Cf. Demorgny, pp. 88-134; also four tribal maps opp. p. 150. 212 Anthropology of Iran The inhabitants of the provinces of Fars and Laristan are of several types. From Kangan eastward along the Gulf and for some distance inland dwell colonies of Arabs from the opposite coast, some of them comparatively recent arrivals, some residents of long standing. In the Hayat Daud district and farther east there are also colonies of Arabs, mostly Sunnis, with a few Shiahs from Hindian. Although the population of the coast is for the most part Persian, it is of a type quite distinct from that of central Iran. These people are of good physique; and in the inland districts they are great agriculturists. Those living near the harbors are much in demand as coolies, even in ports as far away as Karachi and Basra. Many of them are employed also as skilled sailors and fishermen. The coastal tribes, known by the names of their districts, have been separate entities for centuries. They have been divided into groups similar to the Scottish clans before the eighteenth century. Some districts have engaged in feuds with others that lasted for generations, while some maintained traditional friendships with their neighbors, retaliating as a tribe any raid or injury by a common aggressor. The local interests of the chiefs and the occupations of the tribes- men and peasants of the coastal districts, fall into three natural categories. The inhabitants of Liravi, Hayat Daud, Rud Hilleh, and Shabankareh, in the north, are primarily occupied in agriculture, and large flocks of domestic animals are owned by the mountain frontiers- men. There are ports in Bandar Dilam, Bandar Rig, and Ganaweh, the first-named supplying the Kuhgalu tribes and the inland market at Behbehan, the other two selling to the nomadic tribes across the mountains. There is also considerable cultivation of gi'ain in Boraz- jan, Chah Kutah, and Angali. The third category in the coastal region is represented by Tangistan and Dashti, the latter a most extensive district stretching for many miles across the mountain chain. Tangistan has always had a heterogeneous tribal population. The townspeople of Shiraz are said to be of less mixed Iranian type than is encountered elsewhere, but it is difficult to fix upon any feature as predominating or distinctive of them. The town popula- tion includes some Armenians. North of Shiraz the sedentary population is predominantly of old Persian stock, as are the peoples of Fasa, Sarvistan, Kavar, and Khafr districts. South of Jahrum and Shiraz the villages have a strong admixture of nomad blood. The Peoples of Iran 213 The population of Bushire (about 15,000) is mixed; Arabs, Persians, Lurs, and tribes of mixed blood, such as Behbehanis, have settled in the town and intermarried, forming a peculiar racial type. The principal nomad tribes of Fars (cf. Lane, pp. 209-231) are the Qashqai and Khamseh tribes, the former Turks, the latter partly Arabs of mixed origin. Of secondary importance are the Mamassani, Lashani, Mishmast, Boir Ahmadi, and Dushmanziari. Khamseh (Ar.=five). — Nomad tribes. The numbers of their families in 1918 were: Arabs, 11,130; Ainalu, 1,200; Baharlu, 1,200; Baseri, 4,500; and Nafar, 300. The Nafar tribe originally numbered some 1,000 families, but these are now to a large extent dispersed and settled in Bakhtiari country. Part of the tribe remains, however, and has been con- sidered as a unit of the Khamseh tribes. Of the above tribes, the Arabs and Baseri alone were migratory. The Ainalu, Baharlu, and Nafar were of Turkish origin, as also were the Baseri, with the exception of the Turbur Cheharbuncheh, whose language is Persian. The Arabs came originally from Nejd, Oman, and Yemen in the seventh century. Those who reached Fars and are now known as the Khamseh Arabs were of nomadic habit. Their summer quarters have been near Bawanat, Qunquri, and Sarchahan, and their winter quarters in the Bulak-es-Sabeh, i.e. Fasa, Darab, Furg, Jahrum, Juwun, and as far southeast as Tang-i-Dalan. The Arabs were divided into two main branches — the Jabbareh, also known as the Arab Kuchi, and the Shaibani. The Jabbareh numbered approxi- mately 6,630 families and the Shaibani 4,500. These tribes originally spoke pure Arabic, but their speech is now much corrupted, being a mixture of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Luri. Various tribes were included under the designation "Jabbareh Arabs." The Labu Muhammadi, which numbered 1,200 families, comprised the following subtribes: Abdul Husseini, whose sardsir were in the Bawanat Valley and their garmsir at Tarum; Aulad Muhammad, also with their sardsir in the Bawanat Valley but the garmsir at Ab-i-Shur and Darab; Aulad Sabar; Bal Husseini; Karim; Khan Ahmadi; Lur; Naqd Ali, with their sardsir at Deh Bid and garmsir at Fasa; and Pir Islami. The Jani Khan Arabs, whose 1,730 families had their sardsir at Qunquri and their garmsir at Yezd-i- Khast and Juwun, were made up of the following subtribes (numbers of families in parentheses); Aulad Rustam Khan; Aulad Zainula- bedin; Azizi (150); Bahluli (110); Chigini (150); Hindi (100); Jaberi 214 Anthropology of Iran (100); Labu Ghani (800); Lavardani (200); Qambari (120); and Yur Ahmadi. The 650 families of the Shiri had their sardsir at Qunquri and their garrnsir at Darab, Ab-i-Shur, and Binaru. The 1,200 famihes of the Mazidi had their sardsir at Qunquri and Bagh-i- Siah and their garmsir at Hormuz and Lar. The Abdul Rezai, Ali Muradi, and Lur Abdul Rezai numbered 500 families altogether, with their sardsir in the Deh Bid district and their garmsir at Jahrum and Binaru. There were 350 families of Safari, whose sardsir were at Dalu Nazar and Mushghan and their garmsir at Binaru; 300 families of Qarai; 300 families of Tarbur; and 400 families of Ardbiz (Urboz) and Tatti together, who were both sedentary at Chah-Haq. In addition there was the Arab tribal group known as Moqatajat (pp. 216-217). The Shaibani Arabs also comprised various subtribes. The Abdul Yusufi, Ahl Saadi, Chehar Buncheh, Miraki, Palangi, and Vali Shahi numbered 1,050 families and had their sardsir at Qunquri and their garmsir at Fasa and Kordian. There were 200 families of Emadi with their sardsir at Qunquri and their garmsir at Kordian. The Bani Abdullahi and Hannai in 1918 comprised 300 families with their sardsir at Khafrak and their garmsir at Khafr. The 400 families of Alwani, Khusrui, Takriti, and Hassani had their sardsir at Khafrak and their garmsir at Rud Khanneh and Shur-i- Jahrum. The Labu Hajji with an estimated 300 families had their sardsir at Marvdasht and their garmsir at Hakan. The Amaleh with 600 families had their sardsir at Qunquri and their garmsir at Binaru. The Darazi with 500 families had their sardsir at Marvdasht and their garinsir at Seistan-i- Jahrum. The Farsi with 1,100 families had their sardsir at Qunquri and their garmsir at Kordian. The Ainalu came originally from Turkestan and settled in Fars in the thirteenth century. They were at one time migratory, with their yailaq in the neighborhood of Ramjird and Marvdasht. They spoke Turki. The Dindarlu, a small section, hved in the Dudeh Valley about thirty miles east of Shiraz. They have settled down to a peaceful agricultural life. The Dudeh Valley is the principal market garden of Shiraz. In 1918 the sub tribal sections of the Ainalu were as follows: Subtribe Habitat Subtribe Habitat Afshar-Ushaghi Karabulagh Iranshahi Attached to Kalanlar Amir Hajjilu Karabulagh Jargheh Karabulagh Baiat Karabulagh Nagd Ali Ushaghi Daraku Bulaghi Abnarak Qurt Pir Murad Chayan Karabulagh Raisbeglu Rudbal Ekhlaslu Fasa Sakkiz Fasa Ghalbash Karabulagh Zanganeh Karabulagh I I 215 216 Anthropology of Iran The Baharlu, who are of Turkish origin, settled in Fars in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Originally migratory, they had their summer quarters in the districts of Ramjird and Marvdasht and their winter quarters near Sarvistan and Darab. They have now for many years been sedentary and live on the banks of the Darab River. Their language is Turki. The following list gives the sub tribes of the Baharlu as of 1918: Abul Qazimlu Hajji Attarlu Mashadlu Ahmadlu Hajji Barani Muhammad Khani Alamdar Hajji Khanlu Nazarbeglu Amaleh Haidarlu Qara Khanlu Amineh Hassanbeglu Qara Khauslu Aminlu Ibrahim Khani Qazimbeslu Amir Hajjilu Ismail Khani Rasul Khani Asheqlu Issabeglu Sadiqlu Ashurlu Jameh Buzurgi Safid Khani Auladi Kaka Khanlu Sakizlu Azizbeglu Kamanlu Shikari Azizli Karimlu Sulaiman Chehardah Cherik Khuruslu Talakeh Darashur Lur Zargar The Baseri believe themselves to be descendants of the Basra Arabs. They speak a corrupt form of Arabic. Large numbers of transport animals, which they have kept for hire, have been their chief source of livelihood and it is in all probability on this account that they have not migrated far. With the exception of the Vaisi section their summer and winter quarters were all within a radius of about fifty miles of Shiraz, close to the main caravan routes. Two important tribes were included under the Baseri: the Vaisi section and the AH Mirzai. The Vaisi, who numbered 3,000 families and had their sardsir at Ahmadabad and Namdan and their garmsir at Harm and Bidshahr, comprised the following sub tribes: Abdul Yusufi, Ali Mardi, AH Shah Ghuli, Bahluli, Hannai, Jochin, Labu- musa, Mir Ahmadi, Miraki, Miri, Mir Salimi, Sarvgari, Shah Husseini, and Vali Shahi. The 1,500 families of Ali Mirzai were composed of Karami, with their sardsir at Asupas and their garmsir at Marvdasht; the Hussein Ahmadi, with their sardsir at Baj Gah and their garmsir at Sarvistan; the Ali Qambari and Miri, with their sardsir at Asupas and their garmsir at Sarvistan; the Quqi, with their sardsir at Asupas and their garmsir at Sargah ; and the Salahi, who were sedentary. The Nafar, who are of Turkish origin, possessed about 300 tents in the Gerash district. The Moqatajat (Ar., muqata'a, a contract) were a collection of Arab tribes, who, having no Kalantars of their own, were originally The Peoples of Iran 217 contracted to one Hajji Jaffar Beg by the Qawam-ul-Mulk, chief of the Khamseh between 1820 and 1855. They originally numbered some ten to fifteen tribes, large and small, living in various parts of the Khamseh country. They declined rapidly, and finally there remained but few families, some of whom lived in the huluk of Sarvistan and were known as Zoghali, their means of livelihood being principally the burning and transport of charcoal (zoghal). In some of the larger Kham.seh tribes a few families might still be found in 1918, and the Qarai, Ardbiz, Tatti, and Tarbur were also said to have belonged to the Moqatajat. Qashqais. — Qashqais are nomads of Turkish origin. Physically they are perhaps the finest of the tribes of southwestern Iran, except the Mamassani. There is a tradition that when the Turkoman tribes during the Mongol invasions reached the province of Iraq- i-Ajam, a band of them fled and settled in Fars, and that the Turko- mans called this band Qashqai, i.e. "those who ran away" (qachmak, to flee). Changes in pronunciation afterward converted this appel- lation into Qashqai. The language of the Qashqai has remained Turki to this day and the inhabitants of Fars usually speak of them as "Turk." In course of time the original band became divided into two parts because a large section retained the nomadic habit of migration in spring and autumn. One part kept the Turkoman appellation of Khalach, the other was called Qashqai, each having several branches, all known today as Qashqai. Among the recent clans (tirehs), the Shishbuluki and Farsimadan were of the very few stated to be Khalach in origin. Probably the Qashqai II did not number much more than 30,000 families, and that figure included the Hat alone. To this must be added the villages which came under the jurisdiction of the Ilkhani. These probably included some 20,000 to 25,000 families. The Ilkhani therefore exercised control over 30,000 families of Hat and 20,000 to 25,000 villagers in the sardsir and garmsir, making a total of 50,000 to 55,000 families. A very large proportion of Fars was thus in the hands of, or connected with, the Qashqais. The Qashqais were nomadic, not only by traditional custom, but also because their tribal wealth and food supply depended so largely on their flocks and herds that it was always necessary to move to fresh pastures on the higher plateaus of northern Fars before the grazing in the valleys had been dried up by the hot spring sun of southern Fars. Conversely, the climate of the sardsir was too severe 218 Anthropology of Iran during the winter months, and far more firewood could be obtained in the hills of the garmsir. The sheep and goats not only provided milk, meat, and clarified fat, staple items of their food, but the wool and hair were used by the tribes for weaving tents as well as carpets. The latter were sold, and from this source each tent derived a portion of its yearly income. The poorest tribesmen were said to own several hundred animals. Sheep sold readily among the settled inhabitants of the south during the winter season. Those sections of the tribes owning a large number of horses and other animals sowed grain each winter in the valley of the garmsir and the harvested crop was ready for consumption on their return in the autumn. Thus the wide valley of Farrashband was almost entirely cultivated by the Shishbuluki and probably from 200 to 300 tons of grain were raised there every spring. The custom of the Qashqai was to select secluded valleys and ravines on the hillside, which were to an extent protected from the winter weather and were also near water. In such spots four, ten, or twenty tents might be seen together. In general the Qashqai resemble the Lur nomads of southwestern Iran but their language is a dialect of Turki, although the majority of tribesmen understand Persian. In appearance they compare favorably with their Lur compatriots. They seem on the whole to be taller and fairer than Bakhtiaris, and certainly more so than Lurs. In religion they have appeared more orthodox and less super- stitious than their Lur neighbors. The migration of the Qashqai differed a little from those of other nomad tribes. Their principal transport animals were camels and donkeys; mules were scarce and were used only by the Khans, and cattle were not extensively employed. They were probably the only tribesmen in southern Iran, except the Arabs, who used camels for transportation purposes (cf. Harrison, 1936b, p. 36). About the time of the vernal equinox inauroz), the Qashqai usually began to strike their black tents and to move slowly north; then before the middle of September they would leave the northern pastures and return to their old camping grounds. The Qashqais moved farther in their annual migrations than any other tribe in Iran. Their summer quarters were near the northern boundary of Fars, west of Shahreza and Yezd-i-Khast, and extended to the eastern slope of the Kuh-i-Dinar (cf. Harrison, 1936b, p. 34) the Kuhgalu tribes being on the southwest of this range. Their winter quarters were in hot regions of Fars, ranging from the vicinity of The Peoples of Iran 219 Behbehan to near Lar, but never south of the range of mountains bordering the coastHne. Generally speaking, the downward migration of the whole II usually converged on Baiza and Juwun to the north of Shiraz, and then divided, the Darashuri, Kashkuli, and Farsimadan going off toward Shapur or Dasht-i-Arjan, while the Shishbuluki and many smaller tribes, together with the Ilkhani and his adherents, struck off southward via Jireh, Farrashband, Khvajeh, and Firuzabad. According to established tradition the Qashqai were from the beginning forty-four clans. Some of these disappeared altogether, and others dwindled to a few tents. Sections of the Qashqai went over to the Bakhtiari country, or in a less degree to the Khamseh tribes in times of stress, while some of the smaller branches were merged in the larger. On the other hand many sections were finally composed of elements in which little of the original Qashqai stock could be traced. Following is an elaboration of some of the tribes. The Darashuri came originally from Turkestan and settled in the buluk of Garmabad in the Darashur Valley. In point of strength and tribal wealth the Darashuri were the first of the Qashqai tribes. Their garmsir were east and southeast of Behbehan and their sardsir were in Vardasht and Garmabad, near Simarun (Harrison, 1936b, pp. 21-23). The list of subtribes follows, with the number of families in parentheses: Abulkarlu (150), Abul Sulaimanlu (20), Ahangir (250), Aiyublu (30), Ali Mardanlu (50), Amaleh (400), Arablu (200), Ashurlu (100), Bulvardi (150), Charukhlu (50), Chehardah Cherik (100), Dundulu (300), Gugjalu (50), Hajji Davalu (400), Hajji Muhammadlu (200), Imanlu (100), Islamlu (50), Jairanlu (50), Janbazlu (200), Karaghanlu (300), Karajulu (100), Karimlu (400), Karrekhlu (100), Kassemlu (50), Kermeshi (100), Khairatlu (400), Kizemlu (300), Korbukush (100), Naderlu (200), Narrehi (400), Osmanlu (50), Sahmdini (100), Shaki (30), Talabazlu (100), and Yakub Ishandarlu (50) ; total, 5,630 families. Although the Kashkulis have been joined at one time or another by considerable numbers of families of Mamassani origin, they were originally a Fars tribe, having their winter quarters between Jahrum and Lar. Later their winter quarters were between Mahur-i-Maila- tun and Khisht, while their sardsir were in the districts of Kuhmair, Kakan, Ardakan, and Haft Barm. The following subtribes, numbering 2,000 families, were the original Kashkuli tribes: Arughli, Dizjuni, Mamasaleh, Qarachai, Pagir, and Yadakuri. 220 Anthropology of Iran According to tribal tradition the Farsimadan on arrival from Turkestan could not speak Persian. They were therefore christened the farsi ma-dan or "those who know not Persian." Their garmsir were